LESSON NOTE FOR FINAL YEAR STUDENT SSE 421

 

LESSON NOTE ON SSE 421 AFRICA AND DEVELOPING NATIONS

Impact of Colonialism on African Development

Colonization led to:

Disruption of traditional societies and economies

Exploitation of natural resources

Imposition of foreign values and institutions

Underdevelopment and dependency

 

Effects of Colonialism

Economic stagnation

Cultural destruction

Political instability

Social inequality

 

Legacy of colonialism:

Weak institutions

Limited infrastructure

Dependence on primary commodities

Brain drain

New challenges:

Political instability and conflict

Economic crisis and debt

Social inequality and poverty

Environmental degradation

 

·         Examples:

Congo Crisis (1960s)

Biafran War (1967-1970)

Ethiopian Famine (1983-1985)

Rwandan Genocide (1994).

 

Indicators of National Development

Economic Indicators:

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Per Capita Income

Unemployment Rate

Inflation Rate

Social Indicators:

Life Expectancy

Literacy Rate

Access to Education and Healthcare

Poverty Rate

Political Indicators:

Democracy Index

Corruption Perception Index

Human Rights Index

Governance Index

 

Strategies for Achieving National Development

Economic Strategies:

Industrialization and diversification

Investment in infrastructure and human capital

Trade liberalization and regional integration

Macroeconomic stability and management

Social Strategies:

Education and training programs

Healthcare and social protection programs

Social inclusion and empowerment initiatives

Human rights and gender equality promotion

Political Strategies:

Democratic governance and institution-building

Anti-corruption and transparency measures

Human rights and rule of law promotion

Participation and inclusivity in decision-making processes

 

Economic Problems

1. Poverty: Widespread poverty affects majority of Africans, with 40% living below $1.90/day
2. Inequality: Significant income disparities within and between countries
3. Debt: High levels of external debt, averaging 50% of GDP
4. Dependence on primary commodities: Vulnerability to fluctuations in global prices
5. Limited economic diversification: Lack of industrialization and value-added industries
6. Unemployment: High rates of unemployment, especially among youth
7. Inadequate infrastructure: Limited access to electricity, water, and transportation

Social Problems

1. Health: High rates of infectious diseases (HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis)
2. Education: Limited access to quality education, especially for girls
3. Gender inequality: Discrimination and violence against women and girls
4. Food insecurity: Limited access to nutritious food, leading to malnutrition
5. Water scarcity: Limited access to clean water and sanitation
6. Housing and urbanization: Rapid urbanization, leading to informal settlements and housing shortages

Political Problems

1. Governance: Weak institutions, lack of accountability, and transparency
2. Corruption: Widespread corruption, affecting all levels of government
3. Instability: Political instability, conflicts, and coups
4. Human rights abuses: Violations of human rights, including freedom of speech and assembly
5. Electoral irregularities: Disputed elections, leading to political tensions
6. Security challenges: Terrorism, piracy, and organized crime
7. Lack of democratic participation: Limited citizen engagement in political processes

Modernization Theory

Emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, Assumes that traditional societies can be modernized through: Industrialization, Urbanization, Education, Adoption of Western values and institutions. Key proponents: Walt Rostow, Daniel Lerner, David McClelland Criticisms: Ignores power relations and inequality, Fails to account for cultural differences, Overemphasizes economic growth

Dependency Theory

Emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, Argues that underdevelopment is a result of: Exploitation by external powers, Dependence on foreign capital and technology, Unequal trade relations

Neoliberalism

Emerged in the 1980s, Advocates for: Free market principles, Deregulation, Privatization, Trade liberalization

Key proponents: Milton Friedman, Friedrich Hayek, World Bank and IMF; Criticisms: Increases inequality, Fails to address poverty and social issues, Overemphasizes economic growth

Post-Development Theory

Emerged in the 1990s, Challenges dominant development discourses, Argues that development is a: Cultural construct, Tool of power and control, Fails to address local needs and perspectives

Key proponents: Arturo Escobar, Gustavo Esteva, Majid Rahnema

Criticisms: Too focused on critique, lacks alternative solutions, Fails to account for global interconnections

Role of Politics in Development

·         Politics plays a crucial role in development through:

o    Policy-making and implementation

o    Resource allocation and management

o    Institution-building and governance

o    Representation and participation

·         Political stability and good governance are essential for development

Impact of Political Instability on Development

·         Political instability can lead to:

o    Conflict and violence

o    Disruption of economic activities

o    Brain drain and capital flight

o    Loss of investor confidence

o    Delayed or abandoned development projects

·         Examples of political instability in Africa:

o    Coups and regime changes

o    Electoral disputes and violence

o    Ethnic and religious conflicts

o    Terrorism and insurgency

Case Studies of Development Crises in Africa

1. Somalia: Failed state and ongoing conflict since 1991
2. Democratic Republic of Congo: Political instability and conflict since 1996
3. Nigeria: Political instability, corruption, and insurgency
4. South Sudan: Political instability and conflict since independence in 2011
5. Zimbabwe: Political instability, economic crisis, and authoritarian rule

Importance of Development

Economic Benefits

1. Economic Growth: Development leads to increased economic activity, GDP growth, and improved standard of living.
2. Employment Opportunities: Development creates jobs, reduces unemployment, and improves income levels.
3. Poverty Reduction: Development helps reduce poverty, inequality, and improves access to basic needs like food, water, and shelter.
4. Increased Productivity: Development leads to improved productivity, efficiency, and competitiveness.
5. Improved Infrastructure: Development leads to improved infrastructure, including transportation, communication, and energy.

Social Benefits

1. Improved Health: Development leads to improved healthcare, reduced mortality rates, and increased life expectancy.
2. Education: Development leads to improved access to education, increased literacy rates, and better educational outcomes.
3. Human Rights: Development promotes human rights, including gender equality, social justice, and individual freedoms.
4. Social Inclusion: Development promotes social inclusion, reducing discrimination and marginalization.
5. Cultural Preservation: Development helps preserve cultural heritage, promoting diversity and cultural exchange.

Political Benefits

1. Stability: Development promotes political stability, reducing conflict and promoting peaceful resolution of disputes.
2. Good Governance: Development promotes good governance, including transparency, accountability, and rule of law.
3. Participation: Development promotes citizen participation, including voting, activism, and community engagement.
4. Institution Building: Development strengthens institutions, including government, judiciary, and civil society.
5. International Cooperation: Development promotes international cooperation, including diplomacy, trade, and global governance.

  The concept of underdevelopment

Thus the meaning of absolute poverty is equivalent to the meaning of an underdeveloped economy. Some of the common characteristics of the underdeveloped economy are low per capita income, economic inequalities, the slow growth rate of per capita, low-productivity labour and lower level of living, rudimentary techniques of production, low rate of capital formation, lack of resource utilization and similar things as such. 

Countries are divided into two major categories by the United Nations, which are developed countries and developing countries. The classification of countries is based on the economic status such as GDP, GNP, per capita income, industrialization, the standard of living, etc. Developed Countries refers to the sovereign state, whose economy has highly progressed and possesses great technological infrastructure, as compared

BASIS FOR COMPARISON	DEVELOPED COUNTRIES	DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Meaning	A country having an effective rate of industrialization and individual income is known as Developed Country.	Developing Country is a country which has a slow rate of industrialization and low per capita income.
Unemployment and Poverty	Comparatively Lower	Generally Higher
Rates	Infant mortality rate, death rate and birth rate is low while the life expectancy rate is high.	High infant mortality rate, death rate and birth rate, along with low life expectancy rate.
Living conditions	Good	Moderate
Generates more revenue from	Industrial sector	Service sector
Growth	High industrial growth.	They rely on the developed countries for their growth.
Standard of living	Generally Higher	Comparatively Lower
Distribution of Income	Equal	Unequal
Factors of Production	Effectively utilized	Ineffectively utilized

https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-developed-countries-and-developing-countries.html

Globalization comes hand in hand with development, the more developed a country is, the more globalized it becomes. Globalization is when different countries connect and have a relationship by exchanging knowledge, culture or even by international trading. When a country is developed, it is more likely to build relationships with other countries, as their productions become of a high demand and wanted by other countries all over the globe.

 Another advantage of development is having better medical services; better education and an overall better living standard. Lastly, countries, which are developed, have a better economy, as production increases, the wealth of the country increases too.
What is an Underdeveloped Economy?

Underdevelopment

An "underdeveloped country" is a country characterized by widespread chronic poverty and less economic development than other nations. "Underdeveloped country" is an unofficial term, but countries that would qualify as underdeveloped are generally classified as developing countries or least-developed countries (LDCs) by the United Nations, which lists 46 nations as least-developed as of 2021. Underdeveloped countries are alternately called low-income countries/earners (a term growing in popularity) by World Bank and called emerging markets, newly industrialized countries, or members of the "Global South" by various other organizations.

Underdeveloped countries and the Human Development Index (HDI)

One common method used to categorize the development of a country is the United Nations' Human Development Index (HDI). The Human Development Index evaluates each country's human development by tracking indicators such as life expectancy, education, and per capita income. Human Development Index ranks countries on a scale from 0-1, from least developed to most develop. There are four tiers:

low human development (0-.55),

medium human development (.55-.70),

 high human development (.70-80)

very high                             (80-1.0)

 a useful as HDI is as a predictor, it is worth noting that a low HDI does not guarantee that a country will appear on the list of least-developed countries, and a relatively high HDI does not guarantee a country will not be classified as an Least Developed Countries (LDC). For example, Nigeria does not make the list despite its HDI of 0.539, but Bangladesh is on the LDC list with an HDI of 0.632. This is because the least-developed list is based upon a similar, but different set of criteria than HDI, so some variances exist between the two lists. In the case of Nigeria, its income may not be the most efficient, but it is large enough to not be at risk, so the country is not considered least-developed.

Characteristics of underdeveloped countries

i.                    Underdeveloped countries have very low per capita income,

ii.                   They live in a very poor  or dilapidated houses

iii.                 They have little access to education

iv.                They have poor health care system

v.                  They value certificate more than skilled acquisition

vi.                They promote mediocrity

vii.               Underdeveloped countries tend to rely upon obsolete methods of production

viii.            They lack social organization.

ix.                They often experience high birth rates and death rates 

x.                  They have high Population growth, which strains their infrastructure and supply chains

xi.                There is widespread of poverty.

xii.              They are characterized by playing dirty politics which is a do or die affair for their own selfish interest not for the suffering masses

xiii.             They believe in witchcraft in the sense that any young person that dies was killed by the enemy

xiv.            They pray a lot instead of working hard and believe that more prayer will fetch money for them (churchgoers) etc.

The seven common economic traits that appear in most underdeveloped country:

1.      Low income per capita and widespread poverty—the citizens of underdeveloped countries tend to make very little money. For example, the United States per capita GNP in 2006 was $44,970 (US$). The average for low-income countries was $650 (US), less than 1.4% that of the U.S.

2.      Lack of capital, both public and private—Not only do very few citizens of underdeveloped countries own lumberyards, factories, and other businesses, the government is nearly as impoverished and lacks funds to properly build and support roads, railways, schools, hospitals, and so on.

3.      Population explosion—In most underdeveloped countries, the birth rate far exceeds the death rate, leading to excessive population growth. If the growth happens too quickly, systems such as infrastructure, food supplies, and social services may fail to keep pace.

4.      Excessive unemployment—One of the most impactful results of disproportionate population growth is skyrocketing unemployment, caused by a slow-growing job market matched with a quickly expanding population.

5.      Predominance of Agriculture—Agriculture still makes up 40-50% of national income in most underdeveloped economies, as opposed to 2-8% in developed economies.

6.      Small and unproductive investments—Both the citizens and the governments in underdeveloped countries have little extra income to save or invest, and the little they do have if often invested in ways that do not lead to national growth (physical treasures rather than business investments, for example).

7.      Diminished productivity—In underdeveloped countries, the land, labor, and capital all tend to produce less than in developed countries. Labor (workers) are undereducated, underfed, and have poor medical care. Existing resources tend to be managed less well or with less-technological solutions.

and very high human development (.80-1.0)

Economic development is a critical component that drives economic growth in an economy, creating new job opportunities and facilitating an improved quality of life that includes increased access to opportunities created by economic growth for existing and future residents.  Economic Partnership’s encourages economic development team works to attract and retain jobs. Partnership also works to align a nation with a vision for the growth that increases participation in the local economy. While the work of economic developers often falls under the radar, building and sustaining the economy is a critical component to a successful community

Reasons why Economic Development Plays a Critical Role in any Region’s Economy

1. Job creation

Economic developers provide critical assistance and information to companies that create jobs in our economy. We help to connect new-to-market and existing companies with the resources and partners needed to expand, such as industry partners like Career Source Central Florida and the Florida High Tech Corridor, utilities, and local government partners.

2. Industry diversification

A core part of economic development works to diversify the economy, reducing a region’s vulnerability to a single industry: While tourism plays an important role in creating jobs in  anywhere in the world, economic development efforts help to grow industries outside of tourism, including: advanced manufacturing, aerospace and defense, aviation, autonomous vehicles, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, business services, gaming, entertainment technology, financial technology, life sciences and healthcare, logistics and distribution, medical technology, and innovative technology.

3. Business retention and expansion

A large percentage of jobs are created by existing companies that are expanding their operations. The Partnership’s economic development team executes numerous business retention and expansion visits to local companies just last year to assist with their operational needs.

4. Economy fortification

Economic development helps to protect the local economy from economic downturns by attracting and expanding the region’s major employers. For example, when the COVID-19 pandemic heavily impacted the global leisure and hospitality industry, many technological companies transitioned their focus on clients modeling, simulation and training sector.

5. Increased tax revenue

The increased presence of companies in a country translates to increased tax revenue for community projects and local infrastructure. Economic development can also support major job creation initiatives thereby positioning development opportunity for critical funding for domestic semiconductor research and manufacturing.

6. Improved quality of life

Better infrastructure and more jobs improve the economy of any nation and raise the standard of living for its residents. Quality of place is more important than ever to attract a large talent pool in the era of increased remote workers. In addition, inclusive economic development works to support the community’s quality of life through initiatives such as supporting the regional transportation network, affordable housing, innovation and entrepreneurship as well as up skilling opportunities for the local workforce. These initiatives help to provide access and capabilities for existing workforce to take advantage of the new high-wage job opportunities created by economic development efforts.

Community development: community development has been described as a conscious technique or process to solve social change problems; a process that enables communities to “collectively confront and act on their common values and problems” (Lotz, 1977, p.16). Community development includes three main elements: community participation, organization, and work.

The main goal of Community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people with the skills they need to effect change within their communities. The main purpose of the community development is to create awareness for the people and build their capacities for the enhancement and improvement their communities.

Community development can be described as:

Ø  planning services

Ø  servicing self help groups

Ø  running support and social action groups

Ø  building community networks

Ø  participating in inter-agency meetings

Ø  undertaking needs assessment

Ø  increasing people's skills

Ø  resourcing the community to meet needs

Ø  improving quality of life

Ø  defining priorities

Ø  working towards social justice

Ø  empowering individuals and communities.

Community Development Outcomes

Community development processes are open-ended and can lead to many different outcomes:

• individuals developing self-esteem and confidence
• people participating in social activities to overcome social isolation
• increased participation in political and citizenship activities
• practical outcomes such as a changed bus route or a new pedestrian crossing
• government funding for new or additional services.

The connection with social capital

Whatever view one has about the nature of community development, it is clear that it is distinct from social capital.

Social capital is a prerequisite for community development processes. Without social capital, community development processes could not operate. There would be no family, neighbourhood and community networks; people would not trust each other; there would not be reciprocal relationships and so on.

Where there is sufficient social capital to support community development processes the community development process will also generate social capital which can then be used in other community development processes.

Community development is one way of producing social capital. There are many other ways and places including workplaces, sporting events, religious activities, schools and carnivals.

Consequences of Low Social Capital in community development

If there is no or low social capital in the group, neighbourhood or community, it will not be possible for those people to work together for the common good.

Ø  an absence of core building blocks  such as;. self-esteem, trust, and communication skills

Ø   inadequate levels of material well-being warranting to struggling for survival

Ø  poor physical infrastructure - such as places to meet, public spaces, telephones, newspapers etc.

Ø  Opportunities to develop the networks and interconnections between people will be lacking.

Essence of High Social Capital

Where there are high levels of social capital people will:

Ø   feel they are  part and parcel of the community

Ø  feel useful and be able to make a real contribution to the community

Ø   participate in local community networks and organisations

Ø   pull together for the common good in floods and bush fires they will welcome strangers

Ø   help out with their own idea to move the community.

Challenges of African developments

 Ever since the colonization of Africans by the British, they have not yet gained their feet due to political crisis caused by bad governance. We will recall how our forefathers/ nationalist fought for their own selfish interest. Most African countries are faced with one problem or the other; a lot of obnoxious things are allowed to play in Africa due the some factors beyond control and has been allowed to stay as being normal. The issue of rigging election by the incumbent government is no longer a story. Likewise, the issue of imposing a president to the populace is also no longer news. In fact things have fallen apart in Africa according to Chinua Achebe’s novel, a great scholar in Africa. So many challenges have caused the underdevelopment of Africa. Some of the challenges are as follow:

 

i.                    Poor leadership and bad governance,

ii.                    Effects from colonization,

iii.                Neo- colonization or globalization,

iv.                 Greed and selfishness by our leaders

v.                   Promotion of mediocrity,

vi.                 lack of manpower & poor technology

vii.              Brain drain,

viii.            Unemployment,

ix.                lnsecurity

x.                  Poverty and Corruption etc.

 

 

Leadership

Leadership is a function of absolute commitment to the rule of law built on the foundation of right-spiritedness, fair play and democratic ideals to effect positive change in the society. Leadership is prudent and judicious management of scarce resources for the development of the nation. Leadership entails the capacity to carry the subordinates and even the followers along in policy decision making and implementation. it requires mentoring others for performance enhancement. Leadership entails irresponsibleness and reasonableness in private and public conduct.

 

Developmental theories

 Political, economical and social developmental theories should be studied from various scholars like; Walt Rostow, Neoclassical, Keynesian, and Marxian, Aristotle on political development, Pythagoras on economic development, Leo Vygotsky on social development and Erikson etc.

Dependency theory, an approach to understanding economic underdevelopment that emphasizes the putative constraints imposed by the global political and economic order. First proposed in the late 1950s by the Argentine economist and statesman Raúl Prebisch, dependency theory gained prominence in the 1960s and ’70s. Dependency Theory, theory of economic development that emerged in the 1960s; Dependency theory addresses the problems of poverty and economic underdevelopment throughout the world. Dependency theorists argue that dependence upon foreign capital, technology, and expertise impedes economic development in developing countries.

Drawing upon various Marxist ideas, dependency theorists observed that economic development and underdevelopment were not simply different stages in the same linear march toward progress (see Karl Marx). They argued that colonial domination had produced relationships between the developed and the developing world that were inherently unequal. Dependency theorists believed that without a major restructuring of the international economy, the former colonial countries would find it virtually impossible to escape from their subordinate position and experience true growth and development.

According to dependency theory, underdevelopment is mainly caused by the peripheral position of affected countries in the world economy. Typically, underdeveloped countries offer cheap labour and raw materials on the world market. These resources are sold to advanced economies, which have the means to transform them into finished goods. Underdeveloped countries end up purchasing the finished products at high prices, depleting the capital they might otherwise devote to upgrading their own productive capacity. The result is a vicious cycle that perpetuates the division of the world economy between a rich core and a poor periphery. While moderate dependency theorists, such as the Brazilian sociologist Fernando Henrique Cardoso (who served as the president of Brazil in 1995–2003), considered some level of development to be possible within this system, more-radical scholars, such as the German American economic historian Andre Gunder Frank, argued that the only way out of dependency was the creation of a noncapitalist (socialist) national economy. https://www.britannica.com/topic/dependency-theory

In the 1970s, sociologist Fernando Henrique Cardoso (now president of Brazil) addressed weaknesses in dependency theory. Cardoso asserted that developing countries could achieve substantial development despite their dependence on foreign businesses, banks, and governments for capital, technology, and trade. He believed that developing nations could defend national interests and oversee a process of steady economic growth by bargaining with foreign governments, multinational corporations, and international lending agencies.

Walt Rostow’s five stages of Economic Development

The historical approach suggested by Walt Rostow who states that developing countries must pass through 5 stages to reach their current degree of economic development. Furthermore, that the developed countries passed 5 stages to reach their in the stage that they are at present.

The five stages are: traditional society, pre-condition for take – off, take off, drive to maturity and age of mass consumption.

1.  Traditional Society: This is an agricultural economy of mainly subsistence farming, little of which is traded. The size of the capital stock is limited and of low quality resulting in very low labour productivity and little surplus output left to sell in domestic and overseas markets
2. Pre-conditions for take-off: agriculture becomes more mechanized and more output is traded. at this stage savings and investment grow although they are still a small percentage of national income (GDP). some external findings is required such as the form of overseas giving aid or perhaps remittance incomes from migrant workers living overseas.

3.      Take-off: Manufacturing industry assumes greater importance, although the number of

Industries remain small. Political and social institutions start to develop - external finance may still be required. Savings and investment grow, perhaps to 15% of GDP. Agriculture assumes lesser importance in relative terms although the majority of people may remain employed in the farming sector. There is often a dual economy apparent with rising productivity and wealth in manufacturing and other industries contrasted with stubbornly low productivity and real incomes in rural agriculture.

4.      Drive to maturity: Industry becomes more diverse. growth should spread to different parts of the country as the stage of technology improves – the economy moves from being dependent on factor inputs for growth towards making better use of innovation to bring about increase in real per capita incomes.

5.      Age of Mass Consumption: output levels grow, enabling increased consumer expenditure. There is a shift towards tertiary sector activity and the growth is sustained by the expansion of a middle class of consumers.

 

Politics and crises of development in Africa: politics in Africa from countries that are facing a lot of challenges. Like Burundi, Rwanda, Kenya, South Sudan

      Tanzania, Uganda etc. and the way forward

 

Importance of Development

Economic Benefits

6. Economic Growth: Development leads to increased economic activity, GDP growth, and improved standard of living.
7. Employment Opportunities: Development creates jobs, reduces unemployment, and improves income levels.
8. Poverty Reduction: Development helps reduce poverty, inequality, and improves access to basic needs like food, water, and shelter.
9. Increased Productivity: Development leads to improved productivity, efficiency, and competitiveness.
10. Improved Infrastructure: Development leads to improved infrastructure, including transportation, communication, and energy.

Social Benefits

6. Improved Health: Development leads to improved healthcare, reduced mortality rates, and increased life expectancy.
7. Education: Development leads to improved access to education, increased literacy rates, and better educational outcomes.
8. Human Rights: Development promotes human rights, including gender equality, social justice, and individual freedoms.
9. Social Inclusion: Development promotes social inclusion, reducing discrimination and marginalization.
10. Cultural Preservation: Development helps preserve cultural heritage, promoting diversity and cultural exchange.

 

Political Benefits

6. Stability: Development promotes political stability, reducing conflict and promoting peaceful resolution of disputes.
7. Good Governance: Development promotes good governance, including transparency, accountability, and rule of law.
8. Participation: Development promotes citizen participation, including voting, activism, and community engagement.
9. Institution Building: Development strengthens institutions, including government, judiciary, and civil society.

10.  International Cooperation: Development promotes international cooperation, including diplomacy, trade, and global governance.

Other Importance of development: Restoration of peace, love, security, attracting foreign investors, boosting the economy,