SSE 204 LESSON NOTE FOR YEAR 2 DEGREE STUDENTS 2025

 

SSE 204: NIGERIA SOCIAL POLITICAL STRUCTURE 3 CREDIT UNIT

COURSE CONTENT/OUTLINE

NIGERIA CULTURE, IDENTITY, SOCIALIZATION OF MAN, MARRIAGE AND KINGSHIP GROUPS,

PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND COMMUNITIES.

 

NIGERIA SOCIAL POLITICAL STRUCTURE

Nigeria operates under a federal republic structure with a presidential system. The country is divided into 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, with power distributed among the federal, state, and local government levels. The political system is characterized by a multi-party democracy, with the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. Nigeria is a multi-ethnic and culturally diverse. The political landscape is presently dominated by the ruling party of All Progressives Congress party (APC) which controls the executive arm of government and holds majority seats at both the Senate and House of Representatives in parliament, and the majority of the States. The President of Nigeria, Bola Ahmed Tinubu assumed office on May 29, 2023, having won the February 2023 Presidential election.

The country presently is facing many social and economic challenges mainly includes insecurity, banditry and kidnappings more especially in the northwest region, there has been a continued insurgency by terrorist groups not only in the north-east, but almost all the country. Based on the present problem there is separatist agitations in the South-East to be granted Biafra Republic. Despite that the President, Tinubu has continuously pledged to turn around the economy and ensure security across the country nothing has been changed instead things are getting worst in the country that people may barely feed three times a day. There are lots of killings from the herdsmen all over the country. Civil society, the media and other civil groups have committed to sustain advocacy for reforms and actions towards better economic and social outcomes for citizens. Nigeria is a federal republic with three tiers of government: federal (central), states and local government. Although democratically elected local government is protected by the constitution, and development areas and autonomous communities are created by individual state legislation, elected local government is lacking in around half of the states.

 At the state level, the relevant ministry of local government and chieftaincy affairs, or bureau of local government affairs, is responsible for the administration of state-level Acts governing local authorities. Local government exists in a single tier across all states. There are 774 local government authorities (LGAs) and six area councils. Following the 2015 local elections, 9.8% of councilors and 3.6% of chairpersons were female. The funds raised by taxes are collected by all levels of government, with local government being responsible for collecting license fees for haulage, trade and motor vehicles. All revenue collected is pooled in the federal account which is in turn split across the three spheres of government. The core functions of local government include pre-school, primary and adult education; public health; town planning; roads and transport; and waste disposal. (http://www.clgf.org.uk/default/assets/File/Country_profiles/Nigeria.pdf)   

 

 

 

THREE TIERS OF GOVERNMENT

Nigeria's government structure is comprised of three tiers: the Federal (central) government, State governments, and Local governments. They act with distinct responsibilities as stated in the 1999 constitution. 

Federal Government: is responsible for defense, foreign affairs, currency, aviation and shipping. The House of Representatives in Nigeria has 360 members. These members represent the 360 Federal Constituencies across the country. Each constituency elects one representative. There are currently 109 members in the Nigerian Senate. These members are referred to as senators. Each of Nigeria's 36 states is represented by three senators, and the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja) is represented by one senator. It is expected that each law makers should fight for their own constituencies. The interest of the people should be their primary assignment. There are very few laws maker that remembers those who voted them in, whereas the majority only thinks about their pocket and nothing more. Most Nigerian politicians are failures to their people, thereby making the life of the people a living hell. The constituency allowance meant for the people are squandered by some of the representatives. They fail to utilize the money for the benefit of the people.

 State Governments: the 36 states in Nigeria have its own elected governor and House of Assembly. Issues such as education, agriculture health care, state level infrastructure are under them. The security and life of the people should be utmost priority of the state governor of every state. Each local government has a house of representatives standing in for them.

The Local Governments: they are the third (3rd) tier from the grassroots. Consisting of 774 local governments in Nigeria They provide basic amenities for their people. Such as local infrastructural development, sanitation and waste management, and local governance in their respective areas. Every ward in the local government has their own councilors representing the people also.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE

 Social structure refers to the organized patterns of relationships and interactions within a society, thereby shaping how people connect and behave. It is a framework that includes various elements like social groups, roles, norms, and institutions. It is the underlying structure that guides social life and influences how individuals and groups can interact. 

ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Social Groups: Collections of people who interact regularly and share a sense of identity (e.g., families, work teams, clubs). 

Social Roles: Expected patterns of behavior associated with a particular status or position in society (e.g., a teacher's role includes teaching and grading). 

Social Norms: they share rules and expectations that guide behavior within the society (e.g., obeying your seniors and elders, respecting elders, queuing in line, first come firs serve treatment, greetings, etc). 

Social Customs: Warmth and hospitality are hallmarks of Nigerian culture, and social interactions often involve greetings, respect for elders, and a strong sense of community. 

Social Institutions: Established and enduring patterns of social behavior organized around particular social needs (e.g., family, education, religion, government). 

 

LEVELS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Micro-level: Focuses on everyday interactions and relationships between individuals (e.g., a conversation between two friends). 

Meso-level: Examines the structures and interactions within specific groups and organizations (e.g., a workplace, school, or church). 

Macro-level: Looks at the overall structure of society, including its institutions and systems (e.g., the economy, political system, basic amenities, health care system). 

Examples of Social Structure

Family structures (nuclear, extended, single-parent). 

Educational systems (public, private, religious). 

Economic systems (capitalist, socialist, mixed). 

Political systems (democracy, monarchy, dictatorship, aristocracy) and 

Religious institutions. 

 

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Provides Order and Stability: Social structure helps maintain order and predictability in social life by establishing clear expectations and boundaries. People or individual are expected to know what to do at the appropriate time without being directed.

Shapes Individual Behavior: Social structure influences how individuals think, feel, mode of eating, and act by providing a framework for social interaction. 

Enables Collective Action: Social structure facilitates cooperation and collective action by providing a common framework for organizing and coordinating activities. Also makes people to reason alike and pursue a common interest.

Influences Social Change: Social structures are not static; they can change over time as a result of social movements, technological advancements, or other factors that are acceptable, appreciated from time to time.

(https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-structure)

Rule of Law: In Nigeria, the rule of law, as enshrined in the Constitution, means that the government and its officials are subject to and accountable under the law, rather than acting arbitrarily or based on personal interests. It signifies that everyone, regardless of their position, is equal before the law and must abide by the same legal standards. The rule of law is a cornerstone of democracy, ensuring fairness, justice, and equality. 

PRINCIPLES OF RULE OF LAW IN NIGERI

Accountability: Government officials and all citizens are accountable under the law.

Just Law: Laws are clear, publicized, stable, and applied evenly, ensuring human rights and other legal rights are protected.

Open Government: The processes by which laws are made, administered, and enforced are transparent and accessible.

Accessible and Impartial Justice: An independent judiciary ensures timely and fair justice for all. 

THE RULE OF LAW AND THE NIGERIAN CONSTITUTION

• The Nigerian Constitution is the supreme law of the land, and the rule of law is a fundamental principle embedded within it. 
• The Constitution establishes a framework for governance, including the separation of powers between the legislature, executive, and judiciary. 
• The judiciary's independence is crucial for upholding the rule of law, ensuring it can impartially interpret and apply the law. 

 

IMPORTANCE OF RULE OF LAW IN NIGERIA

• Promotes Fairness and Justice: The rule of law ensures that everyone is treated equally under the law, regardless of their status. 
• Protects Individual Rights: It safeguards fundamental human rights and liberties. 
• Fosters Economic Development: A stable legal framework encourages investment and economic growth. 
• Strengthens Democracy: It is a prerequisite for a functioning democracy, ensuring accountability and transparency in governance. 

 

CHALLENGES TO THE RULE OF LAW IN NIGERIA

• Corruption:

Corruption undermines the rule of law by eroding public trust and creating a system where laws are not enforced impartially. 

• Weak Institutions:

Weak or inefficient institutions, particularly in the judiciary and law enforcement, can hinder the effective application of the law. 

• Executive Lawlessness:

Instances where government officials disregard the law or undermine judicial decisions can weaken the rule of law. 

• Military Rule:

Military regimes often suspend or disregard the constitution and rule of law, prioritizing the military's authority. 

In conclusion, the rule of law in Nigeria is a vital principle for ensuring a just, fair, and democratic society, but it faces challenges that need to be addressed to strengthen its application and ensure its benefits are fully realized for all Nigerians. 

ECONOMIC DISPARITIES

 Economic disparity, also known as economic inequality, refers to the unequal distribution of resources like income, wealth, and opportunities within a society. It highlights differences in economic standing between individuals, groups, or regions. Essentially, it describes how wealth, income, and opportunities are not shared equally across a population such as: 

• Income Inequality:

This focuses on the uneven distribution of earnings from work and investments. 

• Wealth Inequality:

This examines the disparity in the total value of assets (like property, stocks, and savings) minus liabilities (like debts). 

• Opportunity Inequality:

This refers to unequal access to resources and opportunities, such as education, healthcare, and legal rights, which can impact future economic prospects. 

Some Causes of Economic Disparity

Economic disparity can be influenced by factors like technological advancements, changes in laws and policies, and the unequal distribution of investment income. 

Consequences of Economic Disparity

It can lead to various social and economic problems, including lower overall quality of life, unproductive, limited social mobility, nonchalant of attitudes to work, and even social unrest.  Some tools, like the Gini coefficient (as described by Study.com), are used to quantify and track economic disparity. 

 

SECURITY CHALLENGES IN NIGERIA

 Security challenges encompass a wide range of threats and vulnerabilities that can affect individuals, organizations, and nations. These challenges can be physical, digital, or a combination of both, and they can range from everyday crime to large-scale conflicts or natural disasters. 

Types of Security Challenges:

Traditional Security Threats: These include military conflicts, terrorism, and organized crime. 

Non-Traditional Security Threats: These are broader challenges like climate change, pandemics, cyberattacks, and economic instability. 

Internal Security Threats: These include social unrest, political instability, and crime within a country's borders. 

External Security Threats: These include threats from other countries, such as border disputes or foreign interference and even conflict in trades. 

Cyberattacks: Hacking, data breaches, ransomware attacks, and other cybercrimes are becoming increasingly prevalent. 

Terrorism: Terrorist groups pose a threat to both national and international security. 

Climate Change: Climate change can lead to natural disasters, resource scarcity, and migration, which can destabilize societies. 

Organized Crime: Organized crime groups can engage in drug trafficking, human trafficking, and other illegal activities, impacting both security and development. 

Migration and Displacement: Large-scale migration can strain resources and create social tensions, leading to security challenges. 

Economic Instability: Economic crises can lead to social unrest and political instability, creating security challenges. 

Political Instability:

Political crises, civil wars, and coups can destabilize countries and create security challenges. 

Addressing Security Challenges:

Strengthening Governance and Institutions: Robust governance structures, rule of law, and effective institutions are crucial for maintaining security. 

Investing in Security Forces: Adequate funding and training for police, military, and other security agencies are necessary to address threats. 

Promoting Social Cohesion: Addressing inequality, promoting social inclusion, and fostering dialogue can help prevent social unrest. 

Cooperation and Partnerships: International cooperation and collaboration are essential for addressing cross-border security threats. 

Addressing Root Causes:

Identifying and addressing the root causes of insecurity, such as poverty, inequality, and lack of opportunity, is critical for long-term solutions. 

In essence, security challenges are multifaceted and require comprehensive approaches that address both the symptoms and the root causes of insecurity. 

Social Issues: Social issues are widespread problems within a society that negatively affect the well-being of individuals, communities, or the larger group. They are often characterized by public acknowledgment, conflict with societal values, and the potential for collective action to address them. These issues can encompass a wide range of concerns, from poverty and inequality to crime and environmental problems. 

 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL ISSUES

Public Acknowledgment:

For a problem to be considered a social issue, it needs to be recognized as such by a significant portion of the population. 

Impact on Society:

Social issues affect a large number of people, either directly or indirectly, and can create negative consequences for individuals, groups, or the entire society. 

Conflict with Values:

Social issues often challenge or contradict widely held societal values and beliefs. 

Potential for Collective Action:

Social issues are often seen as problems that can be addressed through collective efforts, involving citizens, community resources, or government action. 

 

Instances of Social Issues

Poverty: a state of not having anything to take care of oneself or others. Furthermore, inability to have access to basic necessities like food, shelter, and healthcare. 

Inequality: this has to do with the quality of being unequal or uneven such as: social disparity, disparity of distribution or opportunity, lack of evenness, the condition of being variable others. It is also may be unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, or power among different groups in society. 

Crime: is an illegal of act for which someone can be punished by the government. It is especially a gross violation of law.  Can be a grave offense more especially against morality.  

Environmental Problems: this has to do with problems like pollution, climate change, and resource depletion of places around. It has to do with the surrounding around, not been taken properly care of the area such as erosion, flood, oil spillage, polluted water etc.

Discrimination: Unfair treatment based on factors like race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. 

Lack of Access to Education: Limited or unequal access to quality education for certain groups of people; due to poverty or otherwise.  

Health Issues: Problems related to physical and mental well-being of a person, such as disease outbreaks, lack of access to healthcare, or substance abuse. 

Social Injustice: Issues related to fairness and equity in the legal system and social structures of the systems. 

 

Distinguishing Social Issues from Personal Troubles

It's important to distinguish social issues from personal troubles. While personal troubles are problems that affect individuals directly, social issues are broader problems that affect a large number of people and are often rooted in social structures and institutions. Take for instance, an individual's job loss might be a personal trouble, but widespread unemployment due to economic conditions stands as a social issue. 

Nigeria grapples with issues such as gender inequality, poverty, and access to education and healthcare. In essence, Nigeria's political structure is a complex interplay of federalism, a presidential system, and a multi-party democracy, while its social structure is shaped by diverse ethnic groups, social hierarchies, and economic disparities. (Politics of Nigeria – Wikipedia)

NIGERIA CULTURE

Nigeria's culture is incredibly diverse, reflecting the country's numerous ethnic groups, languages, and traditions. It's a vibrant mix of ancient customs and modern influences, encompassing art, music, dance, literature, and a strong sense of community and hospitality.

The elements of culture definition explain culture through a set of five main components. Components of culture, explored in this note, are values and beliefs, norms, symbols, language, and rituals. There are also other components less common such as law and technology, prominent in societies that are more developed.

Values and Beliefs

Elements of culture begin with a group's values and beliefs. Elements of culture examples include cultural values, which are the consistent, unwavering beliefs of a society over time. These beliefs shape how the culture views the world, creating an ideal for the citizens of the culture to live up to. Values are the culturally-defined standards for what is desirable.

However, many do not often live up to this idea. For example, murder is not means for an ideal value in many cultures, but occasionally it occurs through an act of passionate rage. The values of a culture determine many other aspects, such as in Japan, where research suggests citizens are more focused on others than their American counterparts.

Norms

Norms are aspects of culture that humans live by, standards set up to tell one right from wrong. Cultural norms are different from beliefs in that they are specific guidelines passed down from parents and elders, rather than views on the world that tend to be more philosophical. In addition, norms exist even on a small scale.

A formal norm is something that is specifically taught, whereas an informal norm is observed and then mimicked. An example of a formal norm may include how most Americans eat with silverware because that is how they were taught as children. However, if one were to eat at a restaurant with their hands instead of silverware, this would be considered a folkway. A folkway is an action disapproved of by society that is not punished. However, if a person were to steal a car outside that same restaurant, this would be considered a cultural more. A cultural more is a disapproved action that is punishable.

Another example of violating cultural norms would be refusing to get up and go to work. This is considered a because the individual has taught that they need to go to work not to do so in some cultures. Its extremely detrimental to one’s future. https://study.com/academy/lesson/elements-of-culture-definitions-and-ideal-real-culture.html#:~:text=The%20elements%20of%20culture%20definition%20are%20based%20on%20five%20main,symbols%2C%20language%2C%20and%20rituals.

 National Symbols

The Nigerian coat of arms features a black shield with a white 'Y' shape representing the Niger and Benue rivers, eagles for strength, and white horses for dignity. The national motto is "Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress". Currencies, national anthem, national flag, etc.

Languages: Nigeria is home to over 250 ethnic groups, with the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo being the largest. Over 500 languages are spoken, with English as the official language. 

Ritual: A ritual is a sequence of actions, often with symbolic meaning, performed in a specific, repetitive way. It can be religious, cultural, or even personal, and it often involves formal or prescribed behaviors. Rituals help establish and reinforce social structures, mark important life events, and connect individuals to a larger community or belief system. 

 

Repetitive and Formal: Rituals involve a series of actions that are repeated in a predictable order. This repetition can be a key element in their significance. 

Symbolic Meaning: Rituals often carry deeper symbolic meaning, connecting the actions to religious beliefs, cultural values, or personal significance. 

Social and Cultural Context: Rituals are embedded in social and cultural contexts, reflecting the values, beliefs, and practices of a particular group. 

Examples of Ritual:

Religious ceremonies like baptism or communion, cultural celebrations like weddings or funerals, and even personal habits like a morning coffee ritual can all be considered rituals. 

Beyond the Surface: Rituals are more than just actions; they are ways of expressing and reinforcing shared beliefs, values, and identities. 

 

IDENTITY

In general sense, identity can be defined as a person’s sense of self, established by their unique characteristics, affiliations, and social roles. More so, identity has continuity, as one feels to be the same person over time despite many changes in their circumstances. The seeds of identity are planted during a person’s childhood when their caregivers influence them the most. Therefore, even though, as individuals transition from childhood to adolescence, they start questioning who they are and how they fit in in this kind of society. Hence, adolescents set out to discover their senses of self by experimenting with different roles and behaviors (Erikson, 1956). Although adults continue to reassess their identities throughout their lives, the changes to their identities are relatively small. Therefore, according to the famous psychologist Erik Erikson, this significant identity development during adolescence is essential for forming a solid self-concept and developing a direction in life (Erikson, 1956).

 

Identity: in social studies refers to the markers that make evident one's identity, such as language, dress, food, dance, behaviour and choice of space. Social identity theory aims to specify and predict the circumstances under which individuals think of themselves as individuals or as group members. 

(https://www.bing.com/search?q=define%20identity%20in%20social%20studies&qs..)

Identity is a central concept in sociology, encompassing various aspects of how individuals perceive themselves and are perceived by others within society. It encompasses a range of dimensions, including personal identity, social identity, and cultural identity, each contributing to the complex tapestry of self-understanding and societal roles. (https://easysociology.com/sociology-of-identity/understanding-identi......).

Identity includes a person’s qualities that they have little or no control over that, such as their family background, skin colour, or height. It also includes their belief systems, ethics, morals, and values. In contrast, personality typically encompasses dispositional qualities such as extraversion, temperament, optimism, and conscientiousness, among others. In other words, your identity describes who you are and what you stand for, whereas your personality guides your behaviours. (https://www.berkeleywellbeing.com/identity.html)

 

Various types of Identity

 

Personal Identity

Personal identity refers to the unique characteristics and traits that distinguish an individual from others. It is a subjective sense of self that encompasses one’s values, beliefs, personality, and experiences. Personal identity is shaped by various factors, including genetic inheritance, personal experiences, and individual choices. In sociology, the development of personal identity is often explored through the lens of socialization, the process by which individuals internalize the norms, values, and roles of their society.

Social Identity

Social identity, on the other hand, pertains to the way individuals define themselves in relation to the social groups to which they belong. These groups can be based on a variety of factors, such as ethnicity, gender, nationality, religion, and social class. Social identity theory, developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, posits that individuals derive a significant portion of their self-concept from their membership in social groups. This theory highlights the importance of group membership in shaping self-esteem and behavior, as individuals strive to maintain a positive social identity by comparing their group favorably against others.

Cultural Identity

Cultural identity involves the shared characteristics and practices that define a particular cultural group. It includes language, traditions, customs, values, and symbols that members of a culture use to communicate and perpetuate their heritage. Cultural identity is dynamic and can evolve over time as individuals and groups interact with different cultures. In a globalized world, cultural identity often intersects with issues of hybridity and multiculturalism, leading to complex identities that reflect diverse influences. (https://easysociology.com/sociology-of-identity/understanding-identity-in-sociology).

SOCIALIZATION OF MAN

Socialization of man refers to the lifelong process where individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors of their society, enabling them to function as members. It's how people become competent members of their social groups and acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for participation within that society. Types of Socialization. Generally, there are five types of socialization: primary, secondary, developmental, anticipatory and resocialization. This type of socialization happens when a child learns the values, norms and behaviors that should be displayed in order to live accordingly to a specific culture.

The concept of socialization

 

Socialization otherwise known as ‘ internalization of culture’ is a lifelong process by which human beings transmit and learn particular thought, feeling and behaviour processes and patterns required for social perpetuation of, social adaptation to, and social transformation of, culturally determined conditioned and expectations, such as learning ones language, behaving according to the norms and values of the culture, understanding social roles one is expected to perform as one relate to others, and developing complex skills and techniques with which to adapt to as well as transform ones social and physical environment.   

Socialization is a learning process that begins shortly after birth.  Early childhood is the period of the most intense and the most crucial socialization.  It is then that we acquire language and learn the fundamentals of our culture.  It is also when much of our personality takes shape.

 However, we continue to be socialized throughout our lives.  As we age, we enter new status and need to learn the appropriate roles for them.  We also have experiences that teaches us lessons and potentially lead us to alter our expectations, beliefs, and personality.  For instance, the experience of being raped is likely to cause a woman to be distrustful of others especially men.

Human infants are born without any culture.  They must be transformed by their parents, teachers, and others into cultural and socially adept animals.  The general process of acquiring culture is referred to as socialization.  During socialization, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as the roles we are to play in life.  For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters, friends, wives, and mothers.  In addition, they learn about the occupational roles that their society has in stock for them.  We also learn and usually adopt our culture's norms through the socialization process. 

Norms are the conceptions of appropriate and expected behavior that are held by most members of the society.  While socialization refers to the general process of acquiring culture, anthropologists use the term enculturation for the process of being socialized to a particular culture.  You were acculturated to your specific culture by your parents and the other people who raised you.

Socialization is important in the process of personality formation.  While much of human personality is the result of our genes, the socialization process can mold it in particular directions by encouraging specific beliefs and attitudes as well as selectively providing experiences.  These may likely, accounts for much of the difference between the common personality types in one society in comparison to one another. For instance, the Yoruba are known for lying down whenever they greet their elders, and also receiving blessing from their parents and elders. This same people also train their children to uphold their culture in terms of food and language, the same thing applicable to the Hausas as well. It is unfortunate that the Igbos are no longer culture conscious but before the male are trained in trade and to be hard working while women are trained to be good house wives. If we look into foreign cultures, the Semai tribesmen of the central Malay Peninsula of Malaysia typically are gentle people who do not like violent, aggressive individuals.  In fact, they avoid them whenever possible.  In contrast, the Yanomamö Indians on the border area between Venezuela and Brazil usually train their boys to be tough and aggressive.  The ideal Yanomamö man does not shrink from violence and strong emotions.  In fact, he seeks them out.  Likewise, Shiite Muslim men of Iran are expected at times to publicly express their religious faith through the emotionally powerful act of self-inflicted pain.

Successful socialization can result in uniformity within a society.  If all children receive the same socialization, it is likely that they will share the same beliefs and expectations.  This fact has been a strong motivation for national governments around the world to standardize education and make it compulsory for all children.  Deciding what things will be taught and how they are taught is a powerful political tool for controlling people. 

Those who internalize the norms of society are less likely to break the law or to want radical social changes.   In all societies, however, there are individuals who do not conform to culturally defined standards of normalcy because they were "abnormally" socialized, which is to say that they have not internalized the norms of society.  These people are usually labeled by their society as deviant or even mentally ill. 

Features of socialization:

1. Inculcates basic discipline a person may learn how to control his or her impulses.
2. Thereby showing disciplined behaviour to gain social approval.
3. It helps to control human behaviour:  an individual from birth to death undergoes training and his behaviour is controlled by numerous ways. To maintain the social order, there are definite procedures or mechanism in society. These procedures become part of people’s life and human being gets adjusted to the society. As time goes on socialization, society intends to control the behaviour of its members unconsciously.
4.  Rapid socialization: there is rapid socialization if there is more humanity among the agencies of socialization is more unanimous in their ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, for instance the skills transmitted in home and those transmitted by school or peer, socialization of the individual tends to be slower and ineffective.
5. Socialization takes place formally and informally: formal socialization takes place through direct instruction and education in schools and colleges. Family is however, the primary and the most influential source of education. Children learn their language, customs norms and values in the family. 
6. Socialization is a continuous process: socialization is a lifelong process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult, internalization of culture continues from generation to generation. Society perpetuates itself through the internalization of culture, its members transmit culture to the next generation and society continues to exist.

Types of socialization

 Children are socialized according to different cultures we have two broad types of teaching methods--formal and informal.  Formal education is what primarily happens in a classroom.  It is usually structured, controlled, and directed primarily by adult teachers who are professionals.  In contrast, informal education can occur anywhere.  It involves imitation of what others do and say as well as experimentation and repetitive practice of basic skills.  This is what happens when children role-play adult interactions in their games.

Women and girls are the most crucial in socializing children.  Initially, mothers and their female relatives are primarily responsible for socialization.  Later, when children enter the lower school grades, they are usually under the control of their teachers. Even seemingly insignificant actions of parents can have major impacts on the socialization of their children.

Primary socialization: the primary aspect of socialization is the family this is where the children learn how to socialize with the family and are being thought the values and norms of the society. A well brought up child can never deviate from those norms that were being transferred to as a child. We can also see the primary socialization as those ones got from the nursery and primary school, at this stage the child is very tender and sees her teacher as a role model. The child sees the teacher as the most educated even when the parents are more educated than the teacher still the child believes in the teacher and values the teacher’s education more than the parents. The child can never believe that the teacher can make a mistake. If the parents find out that the teacher has made a mistake to correct the child becomes problematic, the simple way is to correct the teacher and the child learns from the teacher. Even though the child meets peer group at this stage they are not as strong as the secondary peers that can influence them more. Primary socialization is very important in a child’s life. It is a stage we call the formative stage whereby the children should be handled carefully for them not to have a bias mind in growing up and in forming their own opinion.

Secondary Socialization: when we talk about the secondary socialization our mind should go to school a bit higher than the nursery and primary school. This time around is the secondary school. At this stage we can say that the child has passed the stage of infantry.  It is an adolescent stage, a stage we call crisis stage. This time the child wants to be independent. He or she would like to confide in his/her friend. They also see themselves as an adult.  The child has known what is right or wrong. The child also can challenge the teacher in terms of knowledge. It is at this stage that the child meets peer groups that are very strong and can influence them. This stage a well brought up child can be influenced by the peers. Those that can be influenced are those that do not have strong self-will. Most of the times are children from broken homes (divorced) or those from a quarrelsome family where the father and the mother fight every day, and some families that have some lapses. This stage is a critical stage for children in taking decision or making choice.

Adult socialization: this has to do with grownups socializing with friends. Socialization has no end we continue to socialize with people until we die. As an adult there are stages of adulthood: the early adulthood, the middle adulthood, and the aging years. According to Atkinson, Atkinson and Hilgard (1983: 98 ):

During the early adult years, people commit themselves to an occupation, and many will marry or form other types of intimate relationships. Intimacy means an ability to care about others and to share experiences with them. People who cannot commit themselves to a loving relationship – because they fear being hurt or are unable to share – risk being isolated. Studies indicate that an intimate relationship with a supportive partner contributes significantly to a person’s emotional and physical health. People who have someone to share their ideas feeling, and problems with are happier and healthier than those who do not have (Traupmann and Hatfield, 1981).  At this stage as the men and women marry, they begin to procreate. As they have children the women divert their attention more on the children than the husband and life go on.

Middle adulthood: they further explained that for many people, the middle years of adulthood (roughly ages 40-65) are the most productive period. Men in their forties are usually at the peak of their careers. Women have less responsibility at home now that the children are growing up and can devote more time to career or civic activities. This is the age group that essentially runs society, in terms of both power and responsibility. As people approach their fifties, they change their view of life span. They begin to think in terms of years left to live. For some people who have spent their years building a successful company may leave it to return to school. For women that have developed their family may develop a new career or become active in politics. Some people at this stage may decide to live the city and retire to the village. Based on stages in life we see the angle or direction where socialization is being channeled to.

The aging years: this is the year after 65years whereby new problems arises, as declining from physical strength and facing all sorts of sickness that demoralizes them and leave them in a state of helplessness.  This time is period of loneliness and less feeling of worth and self-esteem. The aged are also faced with loss of spouse, siblings, and relations which can make their life uncomfortable. The fairness of their children also affects them. The type of socialization at this time is people coming for an advice and blessing. They also socialize with the children by telling those stories of the past and folk lore. Socialization has no end it continues until we die. That is why we say that it is for a lifelong. Old age is time of reflection that deeply looked into how the person faces the end of life. Growing old is very interesting especially for those who lived a good life on earth. For others that their life is filled with regrets they don’t last long they keep on be mourning their lives until they die or pass away.  

 Anticipatory socialization:  this refers to a process by which men learn the culture of a group with the anticipation of joining that group or belonging to the group. People learns the proper beliefs, values and norms of a status or group to which he aspires this is learning how to ach with his new role.

Developmental socialization is the ongoing process of learning and internalizing social norms, behaviors, and expectations throughout different stages of life. It builds upon previous learning, adapting and modifying behaviors as individuals encounter new situations and roles. This type of socialization is essential for navigating various social institutions and developing social skills. (https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+developmental+socialization&sca_..........)

Re-socialization:  refers to the process of discarding the former behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as part of transition in one’s life. This type of socialization takes place mostly when a social role is radically changed. It has to do with abandonment of one way of life for another which is not only different from the former but incompatible with it. For instance, when an armed robber is rehabilitated, his role changed radically.

Features of socialization:

1. Inculcates basic discipline a person may learn how to control his or her impulses.
2. Thereby showing disciplined behaviour to gain social approval.
3. It helps to control human behaviour:  an individual from birth to death undergoes training and his behaviour is controlled by numerous ways. To maintain the social order, there are definite procedures or mechanism in society. These procedures become part of peoples life and human being gets adjusted to the society. As time goes on socialization, society intends to control the behaviour of its members unconsciously.
4.  Rapid socialization: there is rapid socialization if there is more humanity among the agencies of socialization is more unanimous in their ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, for instance the skills transmitted in home and those transmitted by school or peer, socialization of the individual tends to be slower and ineffective.
5. Socialization takes place formally and informally: formal socialization takes place through direct instruction and education in schools and colleges. Family is however, the primary and the most influential source of education. Children learn their language, customs norms and values in the family. 
6. Socialization is a continuous process: socialization is a life long process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult, internalization of culture continues from generation to generation. Society perpetuates itself through the internalization of culture, its members transmit culture to the next generation and society continues to exist.

        Importance of socialization

i.                    Responsible citizens: The process of socialization is important from the point of view of society as well as from the point of individual .Every society is faced with the necessity of making a responsible member out of each born into it. The child must learn the expectations of the society so that his behavior can rely upon.

ii.                  Group norm acquisition: He must require the group norms in order to take the behavior of others into account. Socialization means transmission of culture, the process by which men learn the rules and practices of social groups to which belongs. It is through it that a society maintains its social system transmits its culture from generation to generation.

iii.                Social Behaviour: From the point of view of the individual, socialization is the process by which the individual learns social behaviour, develops himself socialization plays a unique role in personality development.

iv.                Social Being: It is the process by which the new born individual as he grows up acquires the values of the group and is molded into a social being. Without this no individual could become a person for if the values sentiments and ideas of culture are not joined to the capacities and needs of human organism there could e no human mentality, no human personality.

v.                  Personality Development: The child has no self. The self emerges through the process of socialization. The self, the core of personality develops out of the child’s interaction with others.

vi.                 Culture and skills acquisition: In the socialization process the individual learns the culture as well as skills, ranging from language to manual dexterity which will enable him to become a participating number of human societies.

vii.              Basic Disciplines:. Socialization inculcates basic disciplines, ranging from toilet habits to method of science. In his early years individual is also socialized with regard to sexual behaviour.

viii.            Values: Society is also concerned with imparting the basic goals, aspirations and values to which the child is expected to direct his behaviour for the rest of his life. He learns the levels to which he is expected to aspire.

ix.                Traditional Norms: Socialization teaches skills. Only by acquiring needed skills individual fit into a society. In simple societies, traditional practices are handed down from generation to generation and are usually learned by imitation and practice in the course of every day life. Socialization is indeed an intricate process in a complex society characterized by increasing specializations that is what behaviour and pursue such ends.

x.                  Role performance: is very important in the process of socialization. As mates females, husbands, wives, sons, daughters, parents, children, student’s teachers and so on, accepted social roles must be learned if the individual is to play a functional and predictable part in social interaction.

xi.                Potential Being: In this way man becomes a person through the social influences which he shares with others and through his own ability to respond and weave his responses into a unified body of habits attitudes and traits. But man is not the product of socialization alone. He is also in part a product of heredity. He generally possesses the inherited potential that can make him a person under conditions of maturation and conditioning.

Why Members are attracted to the group:

(i) High reward-cost outcomes stem directly from the interaction between members,

(ii) Group activities are rewarding for their sake,

(iii) Membership in the group serves as a mean to attaining other ends.

The cohesiveness of a group also depends on the alternatives available outside the group. Some groups are able to impose severe sanctions upon its members because the members have no alternatives or because they can command little respect in alternatives. Thus forced they continue to be the members of the group and conform to its norms. Members of a caste, because they are often not accepted in other castes have few alternative sources of satisfaction.

Consequently, the caste may very effectively control its members through such techniques as ostracism should they deviate from caste norms. Likewise in primitive and rural comp unities conformity to norms is more prevalent than in urban community. Thus the more cohesive a group is, the more uniform would be the attitudes and behaviour of its members and the more their conformity to the norms.

Further in groups where satisfaction of socio-emotional needs is dominant or where the tasks themselves are enjoyable, conformity is likely to be high. Thus when the tasks to be performed are during, fatiguing or dangerous, conformity will be low, unless the costs of non-conformity are correspondingly high. In situations where sanctions for non-conformity are weak the level of conformity also may be low.

Conformity to norms also depends upon surveillance and sanctions. Unless behaviour is monitored and sanctions are imposed for failure to conform, the desired behaviour is unlikely to occur. Supervision of examination and disqualification of an examinee is necessary to check cheating in the examination. Under conditions of low supervision there is more cheating. In a factory the foreman maintains surveillance over the workers to ensure a minimum interruption of work.

In a group where members feel that they were moderately accepted by other members of the group and that they had the possibility of becoming completely accepted, a high degree of conformity to the norms is to occur. Likewise, the members who feel that they have a low degree of acceptance and are likely to be rejected by the group will clearly conform less to the norms.

Failures in Socialization:

Both the above types of theories fail to explain deviant behaviour adequately. Everyone affected with physical or mental illness does not become a deviant. Likewise, every member of a society is frustrated by the clash of his biological drives with the taboos of, his culture, but not everyone becomes a deviant.

The social scientists are of the opinion that some persons are deviant because the socialization process has failed in some way to integrate the cultural norms into the individual’s personality. Where the socialization process is successful, the individual internalizes the social norms and he behaves in the expected manner.

His lapses are rare. Family, as we have studied earlier, is the most important agent of socialization. Behaviour norms are mainly learnt in the family. Although it is difficult to prove direct relationship between deviant behaviour and family atmosphere, yet a variety of behaviour difficulties have been traced to some disturbance in the parent child relationship.

Cultural Conflicts:

The society is an extremely heterogeneous society. There are many sets of norms and values which compete with one another. The family norms may come into conflict with the norms of trade union. One religion teaches one thing, another teaches a different thing. The school teaches respect and obedience, the party teaches resistance and revolt. The family teaches God-worship, the state teaches secularism.

The religious system teaches that one should be generous and self- sacrificing, but our economic system rewards those who are ruthless and selfish. Our formal mores demand chastity until marriage, but our films present too much sex. The young people are exposed to obscene literature.

Thus culture conflicts are a unique feature of the modern complex and changing society. They are found virtually in all societies. And wherever they exist, culture conflicts encourage deviant behaviour. It may be said that a high rate of deviation is the price we pay for a complex, rapidly changing society.

 Anomie:

Anomie is a condition of normlessness. By normlessness we do not mean that modern societies have no norms; instead, it means that they have many sets of norms with none of them clearly binding upon everybody.

As we have seen, in the modern society with its elaborate division of labour and complex institutional patterns, the difficulty of coordinating all the parts and of socializing all the humans to mesh their behaviours smoothly is formidable.

The individual does not know which norm to follow, whether to follow the norms of the family or of the school. Anomie thus arises from the confusion and conflict of norms. People, in modern society move about too rapidly to be bound to the norms of any particular group. In traditional societies people were guided by a coherent set of traditions which they followed with little deviation.

But the modern society lacks coherent traditions, different groupings having different norms. The society provides him no guide. Consequently his behaviour lacks consistency and conforms to no dependable norm. According to Durkheim, “When there is a sudden change, the normative structure of the regulating norms of society is slackened, hence, man does not know what is wrong or what is right, his impulses are excessive; to satisfy them, he seeks anomie”.

In the words of Merton, “Anomie may be conceived as breakdown in the cultural structure occurring particularly when there is an acute distinction between cultural norms and goals and the socially structured capacities of members of the group to act in accord with them.” According to him, there is in our social structure “a strain towards anomie.” The degree of anomie may range from slight contradiction and confusion to serious deterioration and disintegration.

 Personal Factors:

Sometimes personal factors may also be involved in the genesis of deviation. As a result of their particular experiences, many of the people acquire deviant attitudes and habits. An ugly face may deprive some people of the opportunity to participate in the affairs of the community. Some persons are so seriously affected by an experience that they isolate themselves from certain groups or situations.

Thus some people may refuse to ride trains or automobiles because of some accident in which they were involved. The sight of a dead man led Lord Buddha to renounce the crown. A mouse eating the food offered to the idol made Swami Dayanand a critic of idol-worship. In some cases, a deviant behaviour is supported by myths and legends.

Social Location:

The location of people in the social structure also causes deviant behaviour. The position a person occupies in the stratification system, his position in the age and sex structure of the society and his position in the special arrangements of the society make a difference in how he behaves. The life chances of people depend on the particular position they occupy in the society. The people who live in slums and are at the bottom of social hierarchy are more induced to certain forms of deviation than the people who form the upper strata of society.

KINSHIP SYSTEMS

 

Kingship:

Traditional Authority:

 

Kingship in Nigeria often involves hereditary succession within specific families or lineages. 

Community Leadership: Kings or rulers play a significant role in resolving disputes, maintaining social order, and preserving cultural traditions. 

 

Influence on Governance: Kingship can influence political structures and decision-making processes within communities. 

 

Interplay of Marriage, and Kingship:

Family and Community Integration:

 

Marriage is not just a union of two individuals but also a merging of families and communities, strengthening social bonds. 

 

Extended Family System: Kinship networks provide social support, mutual aid, and a sense of belonging, influencing various aspects of life. 

 

Political Participation: Kinship ties can influence political choices and participation, with individuals often aligning with those within their kinship groups. 

 

Cultural Preservation: Kingship and kinship systems play a vital role in preserving cultural traditions, including marriage customs and social practices. For instance, in Igbo Society, Kinship is central to Igbo social and political life, with strong extended family systems and a system of social organization based on lineage. 

 

In a Yakurr Society, kinship, family, and marriage are based on both patrilineal and matrilineal systems, with kingship playing a role in maintaining social order. Yakurr is a Local Government Area in Cross River State Nigeria.

 

Modern Adaptations: While traditional systems are still relevant, they are also adapting to modern influences, including Christianity, Western education, and globalization. Modernization has led to changes in marriage patterns, with a rise in monogamy and increased individual choice in marital decisions. Despite these changes, kinship and kingship systems continue to play a significant role in Nigerian society. 

 

Patrilineal: Descent is traced through the male line, with inheritance and lineage passing from father to son.

Matrilineal: Descent is traced through the female line, with inheritance and lineage passing from mother to daughter or son.

Double Descent: A system where both patrilineal and matrilineal descent are recognized, with different aspects of social life governed by each line. 

 

Kingship Groups: In Nigeria, "kingship group" typically refers to a traditional leadership structure within a community, often involving a king or a chief, who holds both political and social authority. These groups are often based on kinship (family relationships) and play a significant role in maintaining social order, resolving disputes, and preserving cultural traditions. 

Detailed Constructions of Kingship

Kingship groups in Nigeria, particularly in pre-colonial and traditional settings, are often deeply rooted in kinship systems. These systems define relationships between individuals based on blood, marriage, or adoption, forming the basis for social organization and governance. 

Traditional Leadership: Within these groups, a king (or chief, or other title) serves as a central figure, often inheriting his position through lineage or being selected based on specific criteria. 

Roles and Responsibilities of Kings

The king's duties can vary depending on the specific group, but generally include:

Political Leadership: Making decisions, mediating disputes, and representing the community. 

Social and Cultural Leadership: Preserving traditions, customs, and religious practices. 

Symbol of Unity: The king often serves as a unifying figure, representing the identity and heritage of the group. 

 

Variations Across Groups:

It's important to note that the specific structures and roles within these kingship groups can vary significantly across Nigeria's diverse ethnic and cultural landscape. Some groups may have more centralized power structures, while others may have more decentralized or council-based systems. 

Evolution and Modernization:

In the modern era, traditional kingship groups often face challenges from modernization, urbanization, and the influence of the Nigerian state. However, they continue to play a role in local governance and cultural preservation. 

 

Primary & Secondary: In sociology, primary and secondary groups represent distinct types of social relationships. Primary groups are characterized by close, intimate, and enduring relationships, often involving face-to-face interaction, like family and close friends. Secondary groups, on the other hand, are larger, more impersonal, and often formed for specific, task-oriented purposes, like work colleagues or classmates. 

Primary Groups:

Small and Intimate: Typically include a small number of individuals who share close, personal, and enduring relationships. 

Emotional Bonds: Members have strong emotional connections and a sense of belonging. 

Face-to-Face Interaction: Frequent and direct interaction is common. 

Examples: Families, close friends, and long-term romantic partners. 

Influence: Primary groups play a significant role in shaping individuals' values, beliefs, and social development. 

Secondary Groups:

Larger and More Impersonal: Can be larger groups with less intimate or personal relationships. 

Task-Oriented: Often formed for specific purposes or goals, with interactions focused on achieving those goals. 

Formal and Structured: May have formal rules, roles, and a hierarchical structure. 

Examples: Work colleagues, classmates, sports teams, and political parties. 

Influence: Secondary groups can also influence individuals, but their impact is often less profound and more focused on specific tasks or goals. 

 

COMMUNITIES

 A community is a group of people who share something in common, whether it's a geographical location, shared interests, or a sense of belonging. Communities can be based on where people live, their common activities, or even their shared identities. 

Major Aspects of Community:

Shared Location: People living in the same area, like a neighborhood, town, or city, often form communities. 

Shared Interests: People who share hobbies, passions, or goals can create communities, such as sports teams, book clubs, or online forums. 

Sense of Belonging:

Main element is the feeling of connection and mutual support among members. 

Interactions: Community members often interact with each other, whether through formal meetings or informal gatherings. 

Shared Values and Goals: Communities can be united by common beliefs, principles, or aspirations. 

Some instances of Communities:

Neighborhoods: People living in a specific area.

Online Groups: People connected through social media or online forums.

Workplaces: People who work together can form a community.

Religious Groups: People who share a faith.

Cultural Groups: People who share a common heritage. 

Why are Communities Important?

Provide Support: Communities offer a network of people who can offer help and encouragement. 

Create a Sense of Belonging: Feeling connected to others can improve mental and emotional well-being. 

Enable Collaboration: Communities can facilitate collective action to address shared challenges. 

Promote Shared Identity: Communities can help individuals feel a sense of connection to something larger than themselves. 

 

MARRIAGE AND FAMILY

Definition and Types of Marriage

Marriage is a socially recognized union between individuals, typically involving a commitment to share a life together, build a family, and provide emotional and economic support. It is also for mainly companionship. The Four Ps of Marriage are Personal, Private, Public, and Permanent (PPPP)

Types of Marriage

Four types of marriage recognized in Nigeria We have African customary marriage, Islamic marriage, Christian Marriage and Statutory marriage.

Monogamy: one man, one woman (most common type).

Polygamy: one-man, multiple women (e.g., polygyny). It is not common in Nigeria

Polyandry: one-woman, multiple men (rare), it is not common in Nigeria

Group Marriage: multiple men and women (rare). Not obtainable in our country.

Same-Sex Marriage: two individuals of the same gender. This is a trending thing in Nigeria today, and being influenced by the rich people in our mist; at this time of hunger and starvation a lot of youths are being lured into this act not for the fun but just to get money for survival or to belong among the wealthy group. In our tradition and custom, it is an abomination to the highest order. Trying to destabilize our normal way of life and accepting a horrible and disgusting way of living a normal life. By this we have sold our honour and accepted to live with shame and stigmatization. Same sex marriage is now gaining influence in our society; an urgent attention is needed; order wise the growing ones may see it as a normal way of life. The world should say no this atrocious act of life. The church, traditionalist and other form of religion should see that this does not gain interest in our way of life.

 

 

Functions of Marriage and Family

They teach values, norms, and behaviors to their family members.

Family prepares children for roles and responsibilities in life making them strong and able to stand firm on their own.

Marriage shapes an identity and personality; making people to know that they have responsibilities in life as a married woman or man to play in our society.

African culture respects a married man and woman. They look at mature men that are not married as being irresponsible so also to women. It is their belief that a married person ought to behave well in a social gathering. Once a woman is married you are no longer for the public, thereby choosing the right people for friendship.

Economic Support:

Marriage and Family helps one to share resources and income judiciously. No more squandering, clubbing. Whatever you get has to be carefully managed to maintain economic stability.

They providing financial security to run day to day affairs/business

They also help in managing household expenses.

Emotional Support:

They also provide love, care, and companionship.

Family and Marriage offers emotional comfort and stability.

They help in building trust and as well, intimacy, drawing the family to live together happily.

Changes and Challenges in Modern Marriage and Family

Single Parenthood

Increased due to divorce, separation, or single motherhood by choice.

Challenges: financial struggles, emotional stress, and childcare responsibilities.

Divorce:

Increased due to changing social norms, financial stress, and lack of communication.

Challenges: emotional trauma, financial instability, and co-parenting difficulties.

Same-Sex Marriage:

Increased recognition and acceptance globally.

Challenges: social stigma, discrimination, and legal barriers (in some countries more especially African countries). Same sex marriage or gay marriage will be very difficult to accept in african culture.

Additional Changes and Challenges

Blended Families: merging of families due to remarriage or cohabitation is not easy and sometimes brings problems to the concerned family. For instance, a man and a woman that have divorced coming to live as a family will be difficult for the children to live in harmony since they are born differently; i.e., the children of the man and the children of the woman.

Intergenerational Relationships: changing dynamics between parents, children, and grandparents.

Work-Life Balance: managing work and family responsibilities creates challenges

Technology and Communication: impact of social media, smartphones, and digital communication on family relationships is enough distractions in our society. Some parents no longer pay attention to their children. Most of the time they are glued in their smartphones pressing it from morning to night. Some children feel neglect from their parents and may indulge in crimes, and some are emotionally disturbed and devastated. These changes and challenges highlight the evolving nature of marriage and family, requiring adaptability, understanding, and support to maintain healthy relationships and strong family `bonds for a better society.

Reference:

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