Lesson
Note on SSE 202
SOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN NIGERIA (3credit
unit)
Course content/outline
Social
interaction in Nigeria 1500 – 1800 (Grassland zone)
1500
– 1800 (Forest Zone). Political Systems
in Pre-colonial Nigeria
Social
Interactions in Nigeria 1914 – 1960
What is Social Interaction?
In sociology, social interaction is
a dynamic, changing sequence of social actions between individuals or groups:
i.
A social
interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals and is a building
block of society. Social interaction can be studied between groups of two
(dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.
ii.
By
interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems
within which they seek to live. Symbols are used to communicate the
expectations of a given society to those new to it.
iii.
The empirical study of social
interaction is one of the subjects of micro sociology. Methods include symbolic
interactions and ethnos methodology as well as later academic sub-divisions and
studies such as psychosocial studies, conversational analysis and
human-computer interaction.
iv.
With
symbolic interactions, reality is seen as social, developed interaction with
others. Ethnos methodology questions how people’s interactions can create the
illusion of a shared social order despite not understanding each other fully
and having differing perspectives.
A social interaction is
an exchange between two or more individuals and is a building block of
society. Social interaction can be studied between groups of
two (dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups. By interacting with
one another, people design rules, institutions and systems within which they
seek to live.
Types of social Interaction
Among the most
common forms of social interaction are exchange, competition,
conflict, cooperation, and accommodation. These five types of interaction take
place in societies throughout the world. Whenever people interact in
an effort to receive a reward or a return for their actions, an exchange has
taken place.
Exchange Social exchange theory argues that people form relationships
because they determine that it is in their best interests to do so. In forming
relationships, people exchange goods and services (including emotional support
and interaction). People stay in relationships when they believe that the
exchange is beneficial. Social exchange theory is rooted in rational choice
theory. Individuals evaluate the worth of an action by subtracting
the costs from the rewards.
Competition is a contest between people or groups of people for control
over resources. In this definition, resources can have both literal and
symbolic meaning. People can compete over tangible resources like land, food,
and mates, but also over intangible resources, such as social capital.
Competition is the opposite of cooperation and arises whenever two parties
strive for a goal that cannot be shared.
Conflict
Social
conflict is the struggle for agency or power within a society to gain control
of scarce resources. Conflict theory argues that conflict is a normal and
necessary part of social interaction. In other words, conflict is seen as part
of the social landscape rather than an anomaly. According to the theory,
conflict is motivated by pursuit of personal interests. All individuals and
groups are interested in gaining control over scarce resources, and this leads
to conflict. Once one party gets control of resources, that party is unlikely
to release them. The Matthew Effect is the idea that those in control will
remain in control.
War: War is the classic example of conflict: one army is
attempting to maintain control of resources (land, weapons, morale) so that the
other army cannot have them.
Cooperation is the process of two or more people working or acting in
concert. There are three types of cooperation (coerced, voluntary and
unintentional) and why cooperation is necessary for social reality. Cooperation
can be coerced, voluntary, or unintentional. Communication is necessary for
cooperation. Cooperation derives from an overlap in desires and is more likely
if there is a relationship between the parties.
Unintentional
Cooperation: It is a form of cooperation in
which individuals do not necessarily intend to cooperate, but end up doing so
because of aligning interests.
Voluntary
Cooperation: It is cooperation to which all
parties consent.
Coerced
Cooperation: It is when cooperation between
individuals is forced.
Communication
plays an essential role in cooperation. Communication enables simple acts of
cooperation by facilitating parties’ recognition that they have mutual
interests and large acts of cooperation by organizing the masses. Without
communication, individuals would not be able to organize themselves to
cooperate. Cooperation in Politics: Without cooperation, Congress would
be unable to create any laws.
Accommodation
The term ‘accommodation’ is derived from experimental
psychology, where it denotes how individuals modify their activity to fit the
requirements of external social world. Although accommodation has its origin
in conflict situation, still it is radically different type of interaction.
Accommodation is a form of social
interaction in which we get used to the factors that are likely to lead to
conflict either by force of habit, or sheer inertia, or a desire to ‘live and
let live’. It simply means adjusting oneself to the new environment.
According to Gillin and Gillin
(1948), ‘accommodation is the term used by sociologists to describe a process
by which competing and conflicting individuals and groups adjust their
relationships to each other in order to overcome the difficulties which arise
in competition, contravention or conflict’.
Famous American psychologist J.M.
Baldwin notes: ‘Accommodation denotes acquired changes in the behaviour of
individuals which enable them to adjust to their environment.’
According to Park and Burgess
(1921) observe: ‘Accommodation is a natural issue of conflicts. In an
accommodation, the antagonism of the hostile elements is temporarily regulated
and conflict disappears as an overt action. Even though it remains latent and
may become active again with a change in the situation.’
Accommodation is ‘a process of developing
temporary working agreements between conflicting individuals’ (Horton and
Hunt, 1964).
Accommodation refers to ‘a permanent or
temporary termination of rivalrous parties to function together without open
hostility at least in some respects’ (Cuber, 1968).
‘Accommodation is a term used by the
sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups’
(Ogburn and Nimkoff, 1958).
From the above description, we
may sum up the characteristics of accommodation as follows:
1. It is the natural result of
conflict (Park and Burgess, 1921). Even if conflict disappears as an overt
action, it remains latent as a potential.
2. It is a universal process.
3. It is a continuous process. It
changes with the changing environment.
4. It is a state in which the
attitudes of love and hate coexist (Ogburn and Nimkoff, 1958).
5. It is generally and
subconscious process.
6. It is an agreement to disagree
(Jones, 1949).
7. It involves changes in habits,
attitudes, patterns of behaviour, techniques, institutions and traditions,
etc., according to the changed conditions of life.
Eye Contact
Eye
contact develops in a cultural context and different gazes have different
meanings all over the world.
Q Discuss the
various ways people use eye contact as a means of social and emotional
expression
Eye
contact is an incredibly expressive form of nonverbal communication. Eye
contact aligns with the relationship underlying the gaze. People who are close
with one another look at each other’s eyes; avoiding eye contact can put
distance between two individuals.
The
customs and significance of eye contact vary widely between cultures, with
religious and social differences often altering its meaning greatly. For
example, Japanese children are taught to direct their gaze at the region of
their teacher’s Adam’s apple or tie knot.
Eye
contact: The condition or action of looking
at another human or animal in the eye. Oculesics: The study of eye
contact as a form of body language. Eye contact is the meeting of the eyes
between two individuals. In humans, eye contact is a form of nonverbal
communication and has a large influence on social behavior. The study of eye
contact is sometimes known as oculesics.
Eye
contact provides a way in which one can study social interactions, as it
provides indications of social and emotional information. People, perhaps
without consciously doing so, probe each other’s eyes and faces for signs of
positive or negative mood. In some contexts, the meeting of eyes arouses strong
emotions. Eye contact can establish a sense of intimacy between two
individuals, such as the gazes of lovers or the eye contact involved in
flirting. Alternatively, avoiding eye contact can establish distance between
people. When in crowds, people tend to avoid eye contact in order to maintain
privacy.
Applied Body Language
Body
language is a crucial part of social interaction.
Discuss
the importance of body language as a means of social communication and give
specific examples of body language
- Research has suggested that
between 60 and 70 percent of all meaning is derived from nonverbal
behavior.
- One basic body- language signal
is when a person crosses his or her arms. When the overall situation is
amicable, it can mean that a person is thinking deeply about what is being
discussed, but in a serious or confrontational situation, it can mean that
a person is expressing opposition.
- Flirting is an example of
applied body language. Sexual or romantic interest is primarily communicated
through body language, which may include flicking one’s hair, eye contact,
brief touching, open stances, and close proximity between partners.
- Flirting: It is a playful activity involving verbal
communication and also body language to indicate an interest in a deeper
romantic or sexual relationship.
- body language: Nonverbal communication by means of facial
expressions, eye behavior, gestures, posture, and the like; often thought
to be involuntary.
Body
language is a form of human non-verbal communication, which consists of body
posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements. Humans send and
interpret such signals almost entirely subconsciously. It is impossible for
social scientists to study body language in any manner that is not applied.
Indeed, social scientists are interested in body language precisely because of
what it conveys about social interactions and the relationship between
nonverbal interlocutors. This dynamic can only be studied in applied contexts.
Research
has suggested that between 60 and 70 percent of all meaning is derived from
nonverbal behavior, making body language a crucial part of social interaction.
Body language may provide clues as to the attitude or state of mind of a
person. For example, it may indicate aggression, attentiveness, boredom,
relaxed state, pleasure, amusement, and intoxication, among many other clues.
Elements of Social Interaction
Social Status
Social
status refers to one’s standing in the community and his position in the social
hierarchy.
Social status may be achieved (earned) or ascribed (assigned
at birth).
- Both achieved and ascribed
statuses influence one another.
- Social mobility allows an
individual to move between social levels in the general social hierarchy.
- Max Weber suggests that social
status is the confluence of property, prestige, and power.
- Pierre Bourdieu argues that
social status is a combination of economic and social capital, which
combine to produce a difference of social “tastes” that are decided by
class.
- Pierre Bourdieu argues that
social status is a combination of economic and social capital, which
combine to produce a difference of social “tastes” that divide by class.
Social Class
Social
class is a measure of where a particular person falls on the social hierarchy.
Summarize
the concept of social hierarchy as related to the development of social class
- A social hierarchy refers to
the arrangement of people in society, with some people having more power
and others having less.
- Max Weber evaluated an
individual’s social class by a measure of power, property, and prestige.
- Social class is typically
thought of in a three-class model, dividing a population into upper,
middle, and lower classes.
- In the United States, very few
people are in the upper class, but the upper class possesses a
disproportionate amount of the nation’s wealth.
tween
an individual and society at large.
Social Institutions
An
institution is any structure or mechanism of social order governing the
behavior of a set of individuals within a given community
Discuss
how the development of social institutions, both formal and informal, acts a
guide for the rules and expectation of people within society
- Institutions can either be
formal, in that they are designed to govern behavior, or informal, in that
they govern behavior by socialization rather than overt practices.
- Institutionalization refers to
the process of embedding something, such as a concept, a social role, a
value, or a logic within an organization, social system, or society as a
whole.
- Institutions can also be
abstract, such as the institution of marriage.
- Informal Institutions: They are those that are not designed to regulate
conduct, but often end up doing so as members seek to conform to communal
standards.
- Formal Institutions: They are those that are created with the intention of
governing human behavior.
An
institution is any structure or mechanism of social order and cooperation
governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given community.
Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending
individual lives and intention by enforcing rules that govern cooperative
behavior. While institutions are obviously comprised of individuals and create rules
through these individuals’ agentic actions, institutions act as forces of
socialization, meaning that they teach individuals to conform to their norms.
Institutions
can be either formal or informal. Formal institutions are those that are
created with the intention of governing human behavior. Examples include the
United States Congress, an institution that is designed to create the laws of
the United States. However, formal institutions do not have to have the force
of the law at their disposal. Another example is the Roman Catholic Church.
While violating the tenets of the Catholic Church is not in violation of law,
the Church expects its members to adhere to its religious codes. Informal
institutions are those that are not designed to regulate conduct, but often end
up doing so as members seek to conform to communal standards. Institutions can
also be abstract, such as the institution of marriage. This means that marriage
has become a social expectation, with informal rules for how married people are
expected to behave.
While
institutions tend to appear to people in society as part of the natural,
unchanging landscape of their lives, sociological studies of institutions
reveal institutions a social construct, meaning that they are created by
individuals and particular historical and cultural moment. Sociology
traditionally analyzes social institutions in terms of interlocking social
roles and expectations. Social institutions are created by and defined by their
own creation of social roles for their members. The social function of the
institution is the fulfillment of the assigned roles.
Institutionalization
refers to the process of embedding something, such as a concept, a social role,
a value, or a logic within an organization, social system, or society as a
whole. The process of institutionalization elucidates how values, norms, and
institutions are so closely intertwined.
Social
group: A collection of humans or animals
that share certain characteristics, interact with one another, accept
expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a common
identity
The 5 different types of social behavior include emotional behavior, violent behavior, aggressive behavior, group action and
pro-social behavior.
NATURE OF AND APPROACHES TO SOCIAL
INTERACTION
NATURE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
Social Interaction refers to the process by which
people mutually or reciprocally influence one another's attitudes, feelings,
and actions. This is the lie between the individual and society. This process
is called “negotiated interaction.
There are three situations for social interaction: Person to person (P
to P). Person to group (P to G). Group
to group (G to G).
Approaches to social Interaction
literature on social interaction gives the following approaches to a better
understanding of social interaction: Symbolic Interaction – it refers to the
communication of thoughts and feelings between individuals that occurs by means
of symbols – such as us words, gestures, facial expressions and sounds.
Specific approaches under symbolic interaction include:
1. Definition of the Situation – it refers to the sociological
perspective that views the people attribute to a social setting; a stage of
mental examination and deliberation in which we size up a situation so as to
devise our course of action. This process is called “negotiated interaction”
2. Dramaturgy – it is a
sociological perspective that views social interaction as resembling a
theatrical performance in which people stage their behavior in such a way as to
elicit the responses they desire from other people.
3. Ethno methodology – it is a sociological perspective that
studies the procedures people use to make sense of their everyday lives and
experience. These procedures are the taken for granted, routine activities of
our daily lives and the understandings that lie behind them – it comes from the
Greek word “ethnos” meaning “folk” or “people”, methodology refers to the
procedures used in doing something. 4. Social exchange – it is a sociological
perspective that portrays interaction as a more or less straightforward and
rationally calculated series of mutually beneficial transactions. For more
information log onto this website
(https://www.slideshare.net/annaloucanete7/chapter10-social).
Importance of Social Interaction
1.
Given
opportunity for social interactions with others is very important for the
development of all children.
2.
As
children engage in social interactions, they begin to establish a sense of
“self” and to learn what others expect of them. Although social interactions
for very young children primarily occur within the family, as children grow and
develop, they become more and more interested in playing and interacting with
other children.
3.
As
children plays with others, they learn appropriate social behaviors, such as
sharing, cooperating, and respecting the property of others.
4.
Furthermore,
while interacting with their peers, young children learn communication,
cognitive, and motor skills. Most opportunities for social interactions among
young children occur during play. This opportunity to play with others is
critical if a child is to develop appropriate social skills.
Children
are advised to play with their peers not minding whether they are deformed or
not. No child should be left out in terms of interacting with their peers as it
is necessary in their upbringing.
Reasons social interaction is important for learning for
students.
·
Help students manage
conversations better
·
Help students
refine their ideas
·
Interactions
provide the raw material needed for language development
·
Help students
gain control of language
·
People develop
their second language when they feel good about themselves and about their
relationships with those around then in various courses
·
Student
develops when the learner focuses on
accomplishing something together with other rather than focusing on the course
itself.
Ways that group work facilitates social interaction and
learning.
·
Group work
increases language practice opportunities.
·
Group work
improves the quality of student talk.
·
Group work
helps individualize instruction.
·
Group work
promotes a positive affective climate.
·
Group work motivates
learners.
THE SOCIAL
INTERACTION PATTERN AMONG NIGERIAN PEOPLE BETWEEN 1500 TO 1800AD IN THE
GRASSLAND COSTAL ZONE AND FOREST ZONE, OR SOCIAL
INTERACTION IN NIGERIA 1500 – 1800 (GRASSLAND ZONE), NIGERIA THE SAVANNA STATES,
1500-1800
War
and Conflict, Trade and Commerce, Politics, Cultural borrowing and
interrelationship
The
sixteenth century marked a highest point in the political history of northern
Nigeria. During this period, the Songhai Empire reached its greatest
limits, stretching from the Senegal and Gambia rivers in the far west and
incorporating part of Hausa land in the east. At the same time, the Sayfawa
Dynasty of Borno asserted itself, conquering Kanem Bornu Kingdom and
extending its control westward to Hausa cities that were not under Songhai
imperial rule. For almost a century, much of northern Nigeria was part of one
or the other of these empires, and after the 1590s Borno dominated the region
for 200 years. Songhai's sway over western Hausa land included the
subordination of Kebbi, whose kanta (king) controlled the territory
along the Sokoto River. Katsina and Gobir also paid tribute to Songhai, while
Songhai merchants dominated the trade of the Hausa towns. It was at this time
that the overland trade in kola nuts from the Akan forests of modern Ghana was
initiated. Largely because of Songhai's influence, there was a remarkable
blossoming of Islamic learning and culture.
The
influence of Songhai collapsed abruptly in 1591, when an army from
Morocco crossed the Sahara and conquered the capital city of Gao and the
commercial center of Timbuktu. Morocco was not able to control the whole
empire, and the various provinces, including the Hausa states, became
independent. The collapse undermined Songhai's commercial and religious
hegemony over the Hausa states and abruptly altered the course of history in
the region. Borno reached its apogee under Mai Idris Aloma (ca.
1569-1600), during whose reign Kanem was reconquered. As a result of his
campaigns, several Hausa cities, including Kano and Katsina, became
tributaries. The destruction of Songhai left Borno uncontested as an imperial
force, and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Kanem
Borno Empire continued to dominate the political history of northern
Nigeria. Now Borno became the center of Islamic learning and trade. Its capital
at Birni Gazargamu, on the Komadugu Yobe River that flows eastward into Lake
Chad, was well situated in the midst of a prosperous agricultural district.
Textile production was a mainstay of its economy. Borno also controlled
extensive salt deposits, which supplied its most important export to the west
and south. These reserves were located at Bilma and Fachi in the Sahara, in the
districts of Mangari and Muniyo adjacent to Birni Gazargamu, and on the
northeastern shores of Lake Chad.
Despite
Borno's hegemony, the Hausa states wrestled for ascendancy among themselves for
much of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Gobir, Katsina, Zamfara,
Kano, Kebbi, and Zaria formed various alliances, but only Zamfara ceased to
exist as an autonomous state, falling to Gobir in the eighteenth century. Borno
collected tribute from Kano and Katsina, and its merchants dominated the trade
routes that passed through Hausaland. Gradually, however, Kanem Borno's
Empire position began to weaken. Its inability to check the political
rivalries of the competing Hausa cities was one example of this decline.
Another factor was the military threat of the Tuareg, whose warriors,
centered at Agades in the center of present-day Nigeria, penetrated the
northern districts of Borno. They even diverted the salt trade of Bilma
and Fachi from Birni Gazargamu. Tuareg military superiority depended upon
camels, which also were used to transport salt and dates to the savanna.
The
major cause of Borno's decline was a severe drought and famine that struck
the whole Sahel
(see Glossary) and savanna from Senegal to Ethiopia in the middle of the
eighteenth century. There had been periodic droughts
before; two serious droughts, one of seven years' duration, hit Borno in the
seventeenth century. But the great drought of the 1740s and 1750s
probably caused the most severe famine that the Sahel has known over the past
several hundred years, including that of the 1970s. As a consequence of
the mid-eighteenth century drought, Borno lost control of much of its northern
territories to the Tuareg, whose mobility allowed them the flexibility to deal
with famine conditions through war and plunder. Borno regained some of its
former might in the succeeding decades, but another drought occurred in the
1790s, again weakening the state.
The
ecological and political instability of the eighteenth century provided the
background for the momentous events of the first decade of the nineteenth
century, when the jihad of Usman dan Fodio revolutionized the whole of northern
Nigeria. The military rivalries of the Hausa states and the political
weakness of Borno put a severe strain on the economic resources of the region,
just at a time when drought and famine undermined the prosperity of farmers and
herders. Many Fulani moved into Hausa land and Borno at this time to escape
areas where drought conditions were even worse, and their arrival increased
tensions because they had no loyalty to the political authorities, who saw them
as a source of increased taxation. By the end of the eighteenth century, some
Muslim clerics began to articulate the grievances of the common people.
Political efforts to eliminate or control these clerics only heightened the
tensions.
For more information visit https://workmall.com/wfb2001/nigeria/nigeria_history_the_savanna_states_1500_1800.html
Source: The Library of Congress Country Studies
The
nature and structure of the indigenous economies of the people of Nigeria
between 1500 and 1800 AD
Agricultural
production relied mainly and totally on availability of suitable land and
labour. It is important to note the land-labour ratio. They have excess land
with few people to use the land. The explains why the Trans-Sahara trade was on
a much greater scale, also the Trans-Atlantic slave trade in which millions of
Nigerians were forced out of the region. The result is that land became more
abundant in relation to population than it would normally have been. The
abundance of land had an important consequence. It allowed a system of
cultivation that did not encourage restrictive use of land. The system is the shifting cultivation which meant a
shift from an already cultivated land that was becoming less productive to a
virgin piece of land or land that had been left fallow for years to regain its
nutritive values. Given the situation as it existed in the pre-colonial era,
shifting cultivation was perhaps the most effective method that was devised for
the maintenance of soil fertility and the eventual regular goods.
Traditional Factors of Production of Nigerian Economy
(1500-1800)
As at that time
the factors of production were land, capital, labour, and entrepreneurship this
is within the context of indigenous economy of Nigeria between 1500 and 1800 AD.
Land
was in abundance as at that time. Land was the survival of agriculture
agro-allied production and other allied. The aspect of land that is a factor of
production is concerned with land tenure system. Among some
tribes like Yoruba and the Tiv their land belongs to various lineages or small
communities. Members of each lineage did not own specific pieces of land but
rather use any piece of land as long as it was left fallow and did not contain
perennial crops. They are also free to move about within the communities in
search of land in order to take advantage of the best soil. Therefore, the
right of an individual to farm was inalienable and if problems arise as a
result of land the head of the lineage settles the matter.
Labour as at that time land was not a constraint
on development but labour. This is because the supply of labour was inadequate
that land did not constitute a chaos. There was also labour shortage which was
as a reflection of the prevalent low life expectancy. We can state here
emphatically that infant mortality rate was high, short life span, poor health
care and that most of the strong and women were carted away in millions by the
slave trade. This becomes fashionable and desirable for keeping large families.
The desire for men as at that time was to have many wives and children
therefore promoting polygamy to use their labour for planting and harvesting.
Therefore, family
labour was convenient for them because it was relatively readily available, and
could be easily managed and disciplined. Furthermore, slave labour force was
employed to carter for the shortage of labour. At that time slaves were used
for labour forces in the sense that the production of palm oil, groundnut,
coffee, cocoa and minerals were handled by them. Apart from household and slave labour forces there was
other ways to carry out economic activities like the age- group or labour
societies that organize reciprocal system of getting things done. Ordinarily
this was an arrangement known by the Yoruba land as owe or aro, and for the Igbos they name their age grade to their
eldest or the leader for instance Ogbo Okoye
age grade or ndi ogbo Okeke etc., their aim was that job could be done
quickly or faster when two or more friends joined hands to work in a group.
They apply this to other type of work not only farming. It was also this method
they apply in erecting houses for public works, path construction or clearing
the village premises, constructions of town halls etc. This type of communal
labour is what was used as at then and each time there will be a particular
work to be done each lineage will be required to contribute a number of workers
to facilitate easy and quick job for the benefit of all.
Capital unlike labour that are so highly demanded
although in short supply, capital was said to be scarce and not highly
demanded. Some of the things that served as capital were: the farmers seedlings
which was used for future planting besides there was no standard currency as at
then, there was the existence of substitute currency such as: iron rod, rolls,
of cloth, bottles of gins, and other forms of commodity currency which
presented complex problems of conversion and divisibility. Cowries was also employed;
others were possession of horses. Camels, houses, ornaments while the Igbos used Manillas (known
locally as Okpoho or Ego Igwe) which is the most prominent, it is a
horseshoe-shape brass or copper bracelets, often referred to as “iron money” or
“bracelet manilla” they were widely used in the Niger Delta and hinterland Igboland.
One manila was recorded to be worth a large elephant tooth in the 16th
century, followed by cowry shells (Ego Ayoro) introduced through trade, which
were used for smaller transactions and everyday purchases. Copper Brass Rods
was used for higher value transactions in various parts of Igboland, and Iron
money (Umumu), it is a small pieces of iron minted areas like Awka, often used
for purchasing slaves. Others are salt (often molded into cones) and local textiles,
all these served as capital.
Entrepreneurship as at 1500-1800 the entrepreneurs
were the rulers, chiefs, potentates, war chiefs and other influential men and
women who had enough wealth and power to mobilize other factors of production.
These people have control over land, labour and capital. They also are decision
makers and employers. As at that time Nigeria was growing at their pace things
were normal and they even transact business with the white men who purchases
local product in exchange of what they have, like dry gin or other foreign
things that are not in possession of the natives.
FOR MORE INFORMATION VISIT:
The Grassland peoples
The
grassland region of Nigeria is also called Savana zone and can be divided into
two namely: the Northern and the central zone that are referred to as far North
and middle belt respectively. The major occupant groups in this zone are the
Kanuri, Hausa, and later on the Fulani. They also have other minority groups
being sandwiched in between the major groups. These minority groups are
voiceless. During the pre-colonial era,
the Kanuri people were known to be governed within a single state Kanem-Borno
Kingdom. At different times of its history, the Kanem state covered the eastern
and western sections of Lake Chad basin. There was consensus among historians
that Borno Empire was established in the 9th century, and that makes the empire
to be one of the earliest and oldest kingdoms in Nigeria.
The
Kanuri king is normally addressed as “Mai’. One significant contribution of
Borno on the kingdoms cultural aspect is the fact that it was the first area of
Nigeria to record Islam religion. The west of Borno, lives the Hausa people. They
were known to have been established before 1800 and with some independent
states. The myth of their origin suggests that Hausa states were founded by the
descendants of Bayajidda and so on.
Other
grassland peoples are those in the middle Middle Belt or Central zone. This
Zone embraces some states like; Kwara, Niger, Kogi, Benue, Nassarawa, Plateau,
Kaduna, Bauchi, Adamawa and Taraba States in Nigeria. We have over 200 ethnic
groups in this zone. Other major groups that can be easily identified are especially
around Niger-Benue confluence area namely: Igala,Bassa and Bassa-Nge. The Bassa
and Bassa-Nge are found today in four different states Kogi, Niger, Kaduna and
Nassarawa. Based on their ethnographic materials, shows that they are the same
people, dispersed across the Niger-Benue confluence. For instance, if we take
the case of Bassa-nge and Nupe people and their languages; the two languages
are supposed to be different, but it was discovered by linguists that in
reality, one is a dialect of the other. Due to this linguistic affinity, a
Bassa-nge man considers the Nupe man as his kinsman, rather than an Igala man
who shares the same territory with him. Similarly, a Bassa man believes he is a
native of Niger, Kaduna and Nasarawa and related to Gwari people. He considers
people from these states his kinsmen because he understands Gwari; Nupe and
Gwari are variants of Bassa language spoken in the states mentioned.
The
other ethnic group along Niger-Benue confluence is Idoma. It also comprises
other linguistic variants of Idoma such as Igade and Agatu. Others are: Alaga,
Tiv, Ebira, Kakande, Gwari, Nupe and Nothern Yoruba people. Furthermore the
Northeast and West of confluence are found in Jukun, Bata, Chamba,Tangale and
Waja,Berom,Ngas,Jarawa,Taroh,Mbula,Mumunye and Bachama people,to mention a few.
The number of languages estimated and cataloged in Nigeria is about 521. This
number includes 510 living languages, two second languages without native
speakers and nine extinct languages. In some areas of Nigeria, ethnic groups
speak more than one language. The official language of Nigeria is English,
which was chosen to facilitate our communications.
https://ciannamichelleblog.wordpress.com/2014/09/04/the-grassland-peoples/
Pre-colonial
Political Administrations in Nigeria
The
Hausas and their Political System
THE
KANEM-BORNU EMPIRE
The
first well documented state in the northern region was the kingdom of Kanem
Bornu, which emerged east of Lake Chad in what is now southwestern Chad by the
9th century ad. Kanem
profited from trade ties with North Africa and the Nile Valley, from which it
also received Islam. The Saifawas, Kanem’s ruling dynasty, periodically
enlarged their holdings by conquest and marriage into the ruling families of
vassal states. The empire, however, failed to sustain a lasting peace. During
one conflict-ridden period sometime between the 12th and 14th centuries, the
Saifawas were forced to move across Lake Chad into Bornu, in what is now far
northeastern Nigeria. There, the Kanem intermarried with the native peoples,
and the new group became known as the Kanuri. The Kanuri state centered first
in Kanem and then in Bornu, known as the Kanem-Bornu Empire, hereafter referred
to as Bornu.
The Kanuri eventually
returned to Chad and conquered the empire lost by the Saifawas. Its dominance thus
assured; Bornu became a flourishing center of Islamic culture that rivaled Mali
to the far west. The kingdom also grew rich in trade, which focused on salt
from the Sahara and locally produced textiles. In the late 16th century, the
Bornu king Idris Alooma expanded the kingdom again, and although the full
extent of the expansion is not clear, Bornu exerted considerable political
influence over Hausa land to the west. In the mid- and late 18th century,
severe droughts and famines weakened the kingdom, but in the early 19th century
Bornu enjoyed a brief revival under al-Kanemi, a shrewd military leader who
resisted a Fulani revolution that swept over much of Nigeria. Al-Kanemi’s
descendants continue as traditional rulers within Borno State. By 1830 the Fulani were masters of most of
what was the Northern Region of Nigeria. Only Borno, Parts of Kebbi and Gobir,
the hill areas of the Jos Plateau and the Tiv and the Idoma did not come under
their control. The Kanem-Bornu Empire
ceased to exist in 1846 when it was absorbed into the Wadai sultanate to the
east.
Furthermore,
after the great Jihad war (1804-1810) led by Usman Dan Fodio, the former fourteen
Hausa states were merged and then divided into two caliphates. The eastern
caliphate which included states like Yola, Gombe, Kano, Zaria and Katsina had
Sokoto as its capital territory while the western caliphate, including Ilorin,
Argungun and Kontagora had Gwandu as its capital city. Usman Dan Fodio became
the head (Sarkin Muslim) of the whole Hausa land while the control of Sokoto
(eastern) and Gwandu (western) caliphates went to Bello, Usman Dan Fodio’s son
and Abdullah, Usman Dan Fodio’s brother respectively.
Moreover,
the Sokoto and Gwandu caliphates were sub divided into emirates for easy
administration. Each emirate was headed by an Emir who was appointed from two
or three ruling families with the approval of the Emir of Sokoto or Gwandu,
depending on the emirate who were in charge of the selection. These lesser
Emirs were responsible to the Emirs of Sokoto and Gwandu respectively.
However,
in each emirate, the Emir was assisted by some officials who were assigned to
certain duties. These officials included, the Waziri who was the
administrative officer or prime minister; the Galadima who was in
charge of the capitals; the Madawaki who was the commander of
the army; the Dogari who was the head of the police; Yari is regarded as the
head of prison (chief superintendent of Prison); the Maaji the treasurer; the Sarkin
Ruwa the river fishing official; the Sarkin Fada who was
responsible for the administration of the palace; and the Sarkin Pawa the head of
all butchers. All these officials, who were appointed by the Emir, were
consulted in running the day-to-day affairs of the emirate. This can be said to
be a similarity to the Yoruba political
administration,
but unlike a Yoruba kingdom, power was centralized in the hands of the Emir who
had absolute control over these officials and could depose or dethrone any of
them at his will.
Each
emirate was further divided into districts which were headed by an official
known as Hakimi. The Hakimi is
appointed by the Emir to oversee the affairs of each district which included
maintaining peace and order and collection of taxes like Jangali - (cattle tax), Jizyah - (land tax) and Zakat
- which is the tax on moveable object meant for helping the poor, other
commonest taxes were: Lizya - the tax collected from the
slaves, strangers and alien., Kharaj is a general tax levied on
farm yield or production. The Hakimi
was however assisted in carrying out these functions by the village heads whom
he appoints by himself. The Hakimi and
the village heads were not paid salary but were entitled to retain some fixed
proportions of the taxes and tributes while they forward the rest or remaining
to the Emir.
The
judicial administration of Hausa land was based on Sharia law which covered
a wide range of issues like marriage, divorce, theft, murder, debt and so on.
These laws were interpreted by the Alkali
judges in the Alkali courts. Each emirate could have more than one Alkali court
depending on its size. However, issues not covered by the Sharia law were transferred to the Emir court where the Emir could
preside over such issues. The Emir must be careful in making his laws or
judgments as they must not go against the will of Islam religion which was the
main practice of the people in Hausa land, for example, the Emir could not
legalize the drinking of alcohol in the emirate. Therefore, the legislative
powers of the land can be said to be solely wielded by the Emir in accordance
to the religion of Islam. The Hausa pre-colonial political system was a highly
centralized while, the Emir possess almost all the powers. This was one of the
main reasons why the Indirect Rule System was very
successful in the Northern part of Nigeria (Hausa/Fulani Empire).
The features/characteristics of the
Hausa-Fulani Pre-colonial Political system
1.
Hierarchical: their political
authority was properly arranged having the Emir as the highest in authority.
The Emir is the most powerful traditional rulers in Nigeria.
2.
Autocratic: the Emir controls all
the decisions and takes very little inputs from other group members, make
choices or decisions based on his own beliefs and do not involve others for
their suggestion or advice provided it is in line with the Sharia law.
3.
Centralization: powers were centralized
while the Emir remains the overall person in charge of the helm of affairs of
the community.
4.
Theocracy: the Emir runs a form of
government in which a religious institution is the source from which all
authority derives. Also religion is fused with politics and the law based on
principles of the sharia.
5. The
tax system: the
way they collect tax was systematically organized in such manner that the
collection of revenue for the administration of the Emirate is not cumbersome.
6. Monarchical: the Emir stands as king and the chief commander of
his territory meaning that his decision is final as he holds the supreme power
of authority.
7.
Feudalistic: they run a system in which the feudal lords own land
and people receive land and protection from a lord when they worked and fought
for him.
Functions
of the Emir
1.
The Emir
who is the head of the Emirates manages disputes or presides over it among his
subjects.
2.
Gives
advice to local government chairman the importance of community development.
3.
Educates
and encourages his subjects the importance of tax payment
4.
Enlightens
his people on the importance of carrying out their civil responsibilities
5.
It is
the duty of the Emir to supervise the chieftaincy matters.
6.
He
ensures that his people adhere to their cultural heritage.
7.
The Emir
ensures that law and order are maintained in his territory.
8.
He
presides over Council of Elders meeting in his community.
9.
He
appoints official in his emirate.
10. The Emir performs legislative role and makes law
where the sharia law does not cover.
Igbo Political
Organization
The
lgbo traditional rule or government was structured based on ontology. Ontology
is the branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being. It is a set of
concepts and categories in a subject area or domain that shows their properties
and the relations between them.
The word ontology is derived from the Greek words ‘onto’ which means
being and ‘logos’ which means study. It tries to pinpoint things around us that
actually exist. It is the study of the nature of being or becoming existence
and their differences and similarities. It tries to answer questions that begin
with ‘What’. The scope of ontology can be generalized from philosophy to other
fields like medicine information science
or even advanced physics. Ontology helps us to understand questions like what
is God, what is a disease, what happens after death, what is artificial
intelligence etc. the field is dedicated towards understanding whether things
exist or not. Ontology also studies
how various existing entities can be grouped together on the basis of similar
characteristics and it tries to find out those similarities.
The field also tries to find
a relation between the objects that exist. People who deal in ontology try to
understand why a particular thing
occurs how it is related to other things. Ontology and Epistemology are
probably the most complex terms that one might come across while studying
philosophy. Ontology and Epistemology are branches of philosophy. Our major
concern here is existing being, that is what has been in existence and trying
to question whether we have power to
change it or not. According to BusinessDictionary.com, ontology is:
“the study of the nature of the being or existence. The assumptions underlying
a classification scheme, concept, system, or theory” scheme, concept, system,
or theory.”
Pre-Colonial
Political System in Igbo land
The Igbo
pre-colonial political system was described as an ‘a cephalous political system’ which can be translated as ‘a
leaderless or chief less political system’. This term is suitable for
describing the Igbo pre-colonial political system why because it was
decentralized and based on village and direct democracy where everyone in the village
has the authority to contribute in decision making. Each Igbo village was seen
as a political unit inhabited by related families who were bounded by common
beliefs and origin. Each family head in the village held the ‘Ofo‘title and altogether formed
the Council of Elders. The
council of elders presided over important issues on the village’s welfare,
safety, development and so on. Among the Council of Elders, one was recognized
as the most senior to others. He was the ‘Okpara
‘. He could call for and adjourn a meeting, and could also give judgments as
well.
The
Council
of Elders was believed to be earthly representatives of the Igbo
ancestors. They maintained the age long customs, traditions and laws of the
land. These included laws against misbehavior or immoral acts in which suitable
punishment would be meted out to its perpetrators. There was an important
institution in the Igbo political system called the age-grade. The age-grade
consisted of youngsters that belong to the same age-group. The senior
age-group maintained peace and order in the village and also provided
security to ward off external attacks, while the junior age-group concentrated
on the sanitation of the community and other necessary duties, like going to
fine some defaulters that refused to comply pertaining their rules and
regulations.
The
age-grade were also involved in the administration of the village, and as well
acted as a check to the council of elders and other administrative bodies.
Another level in the Igbo political administration were the ‘Ozo‘title holders. This
expensive title was only conferred on wealthy and influential men in the
community who after getting the title become recognized and could then preside
over meetings with the village elders. Also, the chief priests were not
left out in the administration of the village, great importance were attached
to them for they were believed to be the mouthpiece of the gods e.g., Aro’s long juju. Even the council of
elders consulted the chief priests on matters that were beyond their powers i.e.,
matters that needed spiritual intervention. Therefore, different institutions
were doggedly involved in administering the Igbo community, and powers were
equally shared among them.
The
political organization of the Igbos was segmented because there was no central
government headed by the king. They are chief less society that was segmentary and egalitarian in nature. Therefore, their administrative system was highly decentralized with diffused power. The Igbos has no monarch or
Kingship except in Onitsha where they have Obi of Onitsha equivalent to Oba or
Emir and Red Cap Chiefs this was as result of the contact between Onitsha and
Benin (Edo state). History has it that under Oba Esigie, migrants from Benin
founded Onitsha town across the river Niger, thereby brought their traditional
life to the people of Onitsha thus explained why they have central organized
political system like the Benin (Crowder, 1978) We can conclude that the Igbo pre-colonial political
system can
be safely said to be similar to the modern Republican
system of government in which the people are governed by their consent. The
political system is also gerontocratic
in the sense that the Council of Elders takes the final decision for any
difficult case. It is also known as the government for the elders of which
still reign in Igbo land even till date. There unit of political and judiciary
administration the village consisting the kindred, whereas the family or
kindred was the basic unit of administration.
Pre-colonial Political /Administrative
System of the Igbos
I.
The Executive: administrative
structures of the Igbo political system were performed by the village assembly,
the council of Elders/Ndichie, the Age Grade and the Masquerade Cult stands as
the Executive functions
II.
The Legislature: The Igbo traditional
political system lacks formal or specialized bodies for enacting legislation. Laws are made by
the village assembly and the rest of other law makers. Various law makers have
a specific role to play; for instance, the Age Grade legislates on matter
concerning their mates, the priests of deities enact laws concerning spiritual
matters that concerns land, and where they did not reach agreement the Council
of Elders t
III.
The Judiciary: The village assembly,
the Council of Elders, the Age Grade, and the priest of deities in their
various capacities takes the judicial decisions
Characteristics of Igbo
Pre-colonial Political System as mentioned above were that their
political system is noted for being acephalous, gerontocracy, republican,
democratic, highly decentralized, absent of tax system and egalitarian etc.
Functions of the
Age-Grade
The
age grade in Igbo land has various functions to perform.
Ø
They
serve as security by maintaining
internal and external attack from others;
Ø
They
sweep the community by keeping the
place neat.
Ø
They
also help in development by
constructing roads and mending roads that is bad.
Ø
The
age grade also fines their members who fail to meet up their demand.
Ø
They
discipline any offender who is heady
or have failed to abide by their rules and regulations.
Ø
The
age grades engage themselves in social-cultural
activities like dancing for entertaining the community for a festive
period.
Ø
They
maintain law and order
The
Political Administrative Structure of the Oyo Empire (Yoruba land)
The
vast Oyo Empire was known to be the largest and the most powerful of all Yoruba
empires.
THE ALAAFIN: The Alaafin is the political head of the empire. He
was chosen by the Oyomesi. It was claimed that he could only appear three times
a year in public and that was only during some historical festivals or event.
THE
AREMO:
is the eldest son of the ruling Alaafin but cannot succeed his father at his
demise. He can only help his father in the administrative system of the Empire.
THE
OYOMESI: These
are the seven hereditary kingmakers in the Oyo Empire. Their leader is
Bashroun. Their duty is the installation of the new Alaafin when the time
arises.
BAALE
OR OBA: Each
province was administered by Ajele or Oba. They guaranteed the payment of
tribute and homage to the Alaafin. There was the claim that these rulers had
the power to threaten any hardened Alaafin or chief by invoking the god of
thunder and lightning through the cult of Sango, to a deified Alaafin.
THE
ARMY (ESO): Are-
ono kankanfo is the head of the army. Oyo had for long maintained a strong army
that had been used in winning different wars. It was claimed that if the army
should suffer any defeat, the Are- ona- kankanfo was to commit suicide or go on
exile.
THE
OGBONI SOCIETY: This
society posse judicial powers and was involved also in policy making. The
maintenance and preservation of the cultural values of the people were also
delegated to them. They influence a lot of issues in the society.
THE
THREE ENUCHES: are
also involved in the administration of the Empire. Namely:
1. The
Osi Efa: He was in charge of political affairs, which dies with the
Alaafin and can also be called ‘Abobaku’.
2. The Ona Efa: meant for judicial purpose
3. The Otun Efa: functions for the religious duties of the Alaafin.
Based
on what was known as the Yoruba history we can safely conclude that the Yoruba
political system had a resemblance to the modern federal system of government. Pre-colonial systems in
Nigeria witnessed
a lot of alterations at the advent from the British colonial masters. Several
traditional rulers tried to protect and preserve their political organization
of their kingdoms or empires but were overpowered by the British government and
later gave up after much pressure and threat from the colonial masters. Colonialism
had a great impact on every pre- colonial system in Nigeria, which has come to
stay even till today.
