LESSON NOTE ON SOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN NIGERIA SSE 202 YR 2 2022

 

LAST NOTE FOR DEGREE STUDENTS FCEE                                                                                    SSE 202

Social Interaction in Nigeria 1500 – 1800 (Grassland zone)

 Nigeria the Savanna States, 1500-1800

The sixteenth century marked a high point in the political history of northern Nigeria. During this period, the Songhai Empire reached its greatest limits, stretching from the Senegal and Gambia rivers in the far west and incorporating part of Hausa land in the east. At the same time, the Sayfawa Dynasty of Borno asserted itself, conquering Kanem and extending its control westward to Hausa cities that were not under Songhai imperial rule. For almost a century, much of northern Nigeria was part of one or the other of these empires, and after the 1590s Borno dominated the region for 200 years.

Songhai's sway over western Hausa land included the subordination of Kebbi, whose kanta (king) controlled the territory along the Sokoto River. Katsina and Gobir also paid tribute to Songhai, while Songhai merchants dominated the trade of the Hausa towns. It was at this time that the overland trade in kola nuts from the Akan forests of modern Ghana was initiated. Largely because of Songhai's influence, there was a remarkable blossoming of Islamic learning and culture.

The influence of Songhai collapsed abruptly in 1591, when an army from Morocco crossed the Sahara and conquered the capital city of Gao and the commercial center of Timbuktu. Morocco was not able to control the whole empire, and the various provinces, including the Hausa states, became independent. The collapse undermined Songhai's commercial and religious hegemony over the Hausa states and abruptly altered the course of history in the region.

Borno reached its apogee under mai Idris Aloma (ca. 1569-1600), during whose reign Kanem was re conquered. As a result of his campaigns, several Hausa cities, including Kano and Katsina, became tributaries. The destruction of Songhai left Borno uncontested as an imperial force, and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Borno continued to dominate the political history of northern Nigeria. Now Borno became the center of Islamic learning and trade. Its capital at Birni Gazargamu, on the Komadugu Yobe River that flows eastward into Lake Chad, was well situated in the midst of a prosperous agricultural district. Textile production was a mainstay of its economy. Borno also controlled extensive salt deposits, which supplied its most important export to the west and south. These reserves were located at Bilma and Fachi in the Sahara, in the districts of Mangari and Muniyo adjacent to Birni Gazargamu, and on the northeastern shores of Lake Chad.

Despite Borno's hegemony, the Hausa states wrestled for ascendancy among themselves for much of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Gobir, Katsina, Zamfara, Kano, Kebbi, and Zaria formed various alliances, but only Zamfara ceased to exist as an autonomous state, falling to Gobir in the eighteenth century. Borno collected tribute from Kano and Katsina, and its merchants dominated the trade routes that passed through Hausa land. Gradually, however, Borno's position began to weaken. Its inability to check the political rivalries of the competing Hausa cities was one example of this decline. Another factor was the military threat of the Tuareg, whose warriors, centered at Agades in the center of present-day Nigeria, penetrated the northern districts of Borno. They even diverted the salt trade of Bilma and Fachi from Birni Gazargamu. Tuareg military superiority depended upon camels, which also were used to transport salt and dates to the savanna.

The major cause of Borno's decline was a severe drought and famine that struck the whole Sahel and savanna from Senegal to Ethiopia in the middle of the eighteenth century. There had been periodic droughts before; two serious droughts, one of seven years' duration, hit Borno in the seventeenth century. But the great drought of the 1740s and 1750s probably caused the most severe famine that the Sahel has known over the past several hundred years, including that of the 1970s. As a consequence of the mid-eighteenth century drought, Borno lost control of much of its northern territories to the Tuareg, whose mobility allowed them the flexibility to deal with famine conditions through war and plunder. Borno regained some of its former might in the succeeding decades, but another drought occurred in the 1790s, again weakening the state.

The ecological and political instability of the eighteenth century provided the background for the momentous events of the first decade of the nineteenth century, when the jihad of Usman dan Fodio revolutionized the whole of northern Nigeria. The military rivalries of the Hausa states and the political weakness of Borno put a severe strain on the economic resources of the region, just at a time when drought and famine undermined the prosperity of farmers and herders. Many Fulani moved into Hausa land and Borno at this time to escape areas where drought conditions were even worse, and their arrival increased tensions because they had no loyalty to the political authorities, who saw them as a source of increased taxation. By the end of the eighteenth century, some Muslim clerics began to articulate the grievances of the common people. Political efforts to eliminate or control these clerics only heightened the tensions.

https://workmall.com/wfb2001/nigeria/nigeria_history_the_savanna_states_1500_1800.html
Source: The Library of Congress Country Studies

 

The Grassland peoples

The grassland region of Nigeria is also called Savana zone and can be divided into two namely: the Northern and the central zone that are referred to as far North and middle belt respectively. The major occupant groups in this zone are the Kanuri, Hausa, and later on the Fulani. They also have other minority groups being sandwiched in between the major groups. These minority groups are voiceless.  During the pre-colonial era, the Kanuri people were known to be governed within a single state Kanem-Borno. At different times of its history, the Kanem state covered the eastern and western sections of Lake Chad basin. There was consensus among historians that Borno Empire was established in the 9th century, and that makes the empire to be one of the earliest kingdoms in Nigeria.

The Kanuri king is normally addressed as “Mai’. One significant contribution of Borno on the kingdoms cultural aspect is the fact that it was the first area of Nigeria to record Islam religion. The west of Borno, lives the Hausa people. They were known to have been established before 1800 and with some independent states. The myth of their origin suggests that Hausa states were founded by the descendants of Bayajidda and so on.

Other grassland peoples are those in the Middle Belt or Central zone. This Zone embraces some states like; Kwara, Niger, Kogi, Benue, Nassarawa, Plateau, Kaduna, Bauchi, Adamawa and Taraba States in Nigeria. We have over 200 ethnic groups in this zone. Other major groups that can be easily identified are especially around Niger-Benue confluence area namely: Igala,Bassa and Bassa-Nge. The Bassa and Bassa-Nge are found today in four different states Kogi, Niger, Kaduna and Nassarawa. Based on their ethnographic materials, shows that they are the same people, dispersed across the Niger-Benue confluence. For instance, if we take the case of Bassa-nge and Nupe people and their languages; the two languages are supposed to be different, but it was discovered by linguists that in reality, one is a dialect of the other. Due to this linguistic affinity, a Bassa-nge man considers the Nupe man as his kinsman, rather than an Igala man who shares the same territory with him. Similarly, a Bassa man believes he is a native of Niger, Kaduna and Nasarawa and related to Gwari people. He considers people from these states his kinsmen because he understands Gwari; Nupe and Gwari are variants of Bassa language spoken in the states mentioned.

The other ethnic group along Niger-Benue confluence is Idoma. It also comprises other linguistic variants of Idoma such as Igade and Agatu. Others are: Alaga, Tiv, Ebira, Kakande, Gwari, Nupe and Nothern Yoruba people. Furthermore the Northeast and West of confluence are found in Jukun, Bata, Chamba,Tangale and Waja,Berom,Ngas,Jarawa,Taroh,Mbula,Mumunye and Bachama people, to mention a few. The number of languages estimated and cataloged in Nigeria is about 521. This number includes 510 living languages, two second languages without native speakers and nine extinct languages. In some areas of Nigeria, ethnic groups speak more than one language. The official language of Nigeria is English, which was chosen to facilitate our communications.

https://ciannamichelleblog.wordpress.com/2014/09/04/the-grassland-peoples/

 

1500 – 1800 (Forest Zone).

 

Pre-colonial Political Administrations in Nigeria

The Hausas and their Political System

THE KANEM-BORNU EMPIRE

The first well documented state in the northern region was the kingdom of Kanem Bornu, which emerged east of Lake Chad in what is now southwestern Chad by the 9th century ad. Kanem profited from trade ties with North Africa and the Nile Valley, from which it also received Islam. The Saifawas, Kanem’s ruling dynasty, periodically enlarged their holdings by conquest and marriage into the ruling families of vassal states. The empire, however, failed to sustain a lasting peace. During one conflict-ridden period sometime between the 12th and 14th centuries, the Saifawas were forced to move across Lake Chad into Bornu, in what is now far northeastern Nigeria. There, the Kanem intermarried with the native peoples, and the new group became known as the Kanuri. The Kanuri state centered first in Kanem and then in Bornu,  known as the Kanem-Bornu Empire, hereafter referred to as Bornu.

 

The Kanuri eventually returned to Chad and conquered the empire lost by the Saifawas. Its dominance thus assured, Bornu became a flourishing center of Islamic culture that rivaled Mali to the far west. The kingdom also grew rich in trade, which focused on salt from the Sahara and locally produced textiles. In the late 16th century, the Bornu king Idris Alooma expanded the kingdom again, and although the full extent of the expansion is not clear, Bornu exerted considerable political influence over Hausa land to the west. In the mid- and late 18th century, severe droughts and famines weakened the kingdom, but in the early 19th century Bornu enjoyed a brief revival under al-Kanemi, a shrewd military leader who resisted a Fulani revolution that swept over much of Nigeria. Al-Kanemi’s descendants continue as traditional rulers within Borno State.  By 1830 the Fulani were masters of most of what was the Northern Region of Nigeria. Only Borno, Parts of Kebbi and Gobir, the hill areas of the Jos Plateau and the Tiv and the Idoma did not come under their control.  The Kanem-Bornu Empire ceased to exist in 1846 when it was absorbed into the Wadai sultanate to the east.

 

Furthermore, after the great Jihad war (1804-1810) led by Usman Dan Fodio, the former fourteen Hausa states were merged and then divided into two caliphates. The eastern caliphate which included states like Yola, Gombe, Kano, Zaria and Katsina had Sokoto as its capital territory while the western caliphate, including Ilorin, Argungun and Kontagora had Gwandu as its capital city. Usman Dan Fodio became the head (Sarkin Muslim) of the whole Hausa land while the control of Sokoto (eastern) and Gwandu (western) caliphates went to Bello, Usman Dan Fodio’s son and Abdullah, Usman Dan Fodio’s brother respectively.

Moreover, the Sokoto and Gwandu caliphates were sub divided into emirates for easy administration. Each emirate was headed by an Emir who was appointed from two or three ruling families with the approval of the Emir of Sokoto or Gwandu, depending on the emirate who were in charge of the selection. These lesser Emirs were responsible to the Emirs of Sokoto and Gwandu respectively.

However, in each emirate, the Emir was assisted by some officials who were assigned to certain duties. These officials included, the Waziri who was the administrative officer or prime minister; the Galadima who was in charge of the capitals; the Madawaki who was the commander of the army; the Dogari who was the head of the police; Yari  is  regarded as the head of prison (chief superintendent of Prison); the Maaji the treasurer; the Sarkin Ruwa the river fishing official; the Sarkin Fada who was responsible for the administration of the palace; and the Sarkin Pawa the head of all butchers. All these officials, who were appointed by the Emir, were consulted in running the day to day affairs of the emirate. This can be said to be a similarity to the Yoruba political administration, but unlike a Yoruba kingdom, power was centralized in the hands of the Emir who had absolute control over these officials and could depose or dethrone any of them at his will.

Each emirate was further divided into districts which were headed by an official known as Hakimi. The Hakimi is appointed by the Emir to oversee the affairs of each district which included maintaining peace and order and collection of taxes like Jangali - (cattle tax), Jizyah - (land tax) and Zakat - which is the tax on moveable object meant for helping the poor, other commonest taxes were: Lizya - the tax collected from the slaves, strangers and alien., Kharaj is a general tax levied on farm yield or production. The Hakimi was however assisted in carrying out these functions by the village heads whom he appoints by himself. The Hakimi and the village heads were not paid salary but were entitled to retain some fixed proportions of the taxes and tributes while they forward the rest or remaining to the Emir.

The judicial administration of Hausa land was based on Sharia law which covered a wide range of issues like marriage, divorce, theft, murder, debt and so on. These laws were interpreted by the Alkali judges in the Alkali courts. Each emirate could have more than one Alkali court depending on its size. However, issues not covered by the Sharia law were transferred to the Emir court where the Emir could preside over such issues. The Emir must be careful in making his laws or judgments as they must not go against the will of Islam religion which was the main practice of the people in Hausa land, for example, the Emir could not legalize the drinking of alcohol in the emirate. Therefore, the legislative powers of the land can be said to be solely wielded by the Emir in accordance to the religion of Islam. The Hausa pre-colonial political system was a highly centralized while, the Emir posses almost all the powers. This was one of the main reasons why the Indirect Rule System was very successful in the Northern part of Nigeria (Hausa/Fulani Empire).

The features/characteristics of the Hausa-Fulani Pre-colonial Political system

1.       Hierarchical: their political authority was properly arranged having the Emir as the highest in authority. The Emir is the most powerful traditional rulers in Nigeria.

 

2.       Autocratic:   the Emir controls all the decisions and takes very little inputs from other group members, make choices or decisions based on his own beliefs and do not involve others for their suggestion or advice provided it is in line with the Sharia law.

 

3.        Centralization: powers were centralized while the Emir remains the overall person in charge of the helm of affairs of the community.

 

4.      Theocracy: the Emir runs a form of government in which a religious institution is the source from which all authority derives. Also religion is fused with politics and the law based on principles of the sharia.

 

5.      The tax system: the way they collect tax was systematically organized in such manner that the collection of revenue for the administration of the Emirate is not cumbersome.

 

6.      Monarchical:  the Emir stands as king and the chief commander of his territory meaning that his decision is final as he holds the supreme power of authority.

 

7.        Feudalistic: they run a system in which the feudal lords own land and people receive land and protection from a lord when they worked and fought for him.

 

Functions of the Emir

1.      The Emir who is the head of the Emirates manages disputes or presides over it among his subjects.

2.      Gives advice to local government chairman the importance of community development.

3.      Educates and encourages his subjects the importance of tax payment

4.      Enlightens his people on the importance of carrying out their civil responsibilities

5.      It is the duty of the Emir to supervise the chieftaincy matters.

6.      He ensures that his people adhere to their cultural heritage.

7.      The Emir ensures that law and order are maintained in his territory.

8.      He presides over Council of Elders meeting in his community.

9.      He appoints official in his emirate.

10.  The Emir performs legislative role and makes law where the sharia law does not cover.

 

Pre-Colonial Political System in Igbo land

The Igbo pre-colonial political system was described as an ‘a cephalous political system’ which can be translated as ‘a leaderless or chief less political system’. This term is suitable for describing the Igbo pre-colonial political system why because it was decentralized and based on village and direct democracy where everyone in the village has the authority to contribute in decision making. Each Igbo village was seen as a political unit inhabited by related families who were bounded by common beliefs and origin. Each family head in the village held the ‘Ofo‘title and altogether formed the Council of Elders. The council of elders presided over important issues on the village’s welfare, safety, development and so on. Among the Council of Elders, one was recognized as the most senior to others. He was the ‘Okpara‘. He could call for and adjourn a meeting, and could also give judgments as well.  

The Council of Elders was believed to be earthly representatives of the Igbo ancestors. They maintained the age long customs, traditions and laws of the land. These included laws against misbehavior or immoral acts in which suitable punishment would be meted out to its perpetrators. There was an important institution in the Igbo political system called the age-grade. The age-grade consisted of youngsters that belong to the same age-group. The senior age-group maintained peace and order in the village and also provided security to ward off external attacks, while the junior age-group concentrated on the sanitation of the community and other necessary duties, like going to fine some defaulters that refused to comply pertaining their rules and regulations.  

The age-grade were also involved in the administration of the village, and as well acted as a check to the council of elders and other administrative bodies. Another level in the Igbo political administration were the ‘Ozo‘title holders. This expensive title was only conferred on wealthy and influential men in the community who after getting the title become recognized and could then preside over meetings with the village elders. Also, the chief priests were not left out in the administration of the village, great importance were attached to them for they were believed to be the mouthpiece of the gods e.g. Aro’s long juju. Even the council of elders consulted the chief priests on matters that were beyond their powers i.e. matters that needed spiritual intervention. Therefore, different institutions were doggedly involved in administering the Igbo community, and powers were equally shared among them.

The political organization of the Igbos was segmented because there was no central government headed by the king. They are chief less society that was segmentary and egalitarian in nature. Therefore their administrative system was highly decentralized with diffused power. The Igbos has no monarch or Kingship except in Onitsha where they have Obi of Onitsha equivalent to Oba or Emir and Red Cap Chiefs this was as result of the contact between Onitsha and Benin (Edo state). History has it that under Oba Esigie, migrants from Benin founded Onitsha town across the river Niger, thereby brought their traditional life to the people of Onitsha thus explained why they have central organized political system like the Benin (Crowder, 1978)   We can conclude that the Igbo pre-colonial political system can be safely said to be similar to the modern Republican system of government in which the people are governed by their consent. The political system is also gerontocratic in the sense that the Council of Elders takes the final decision for any difficult case. It is also known as the government for the elders of which still reign in Igbo land even till date. There unit of political and judiciary administration the village consisting the kindred, whereas the family or kindred was the basic unit of administration.

Pre-colonial Political /Administrative System of the Igbos

        I.            The Executive: administrative structures of the Igbo political system were performed by the village assembly, the council of Elders/Ndichie, the Age Grade and the Masquerade Cult stands as the Executive functions

      II.            The Legislature: the Igbo traditional political system lacks formal or specialized bodies   for enacting legislation. Laws are made by the village assembly and the rest of other law makers. Various law makers has a specific role to play; for instance the Age Grade legislates on matter concerning their mates, the priests of deities enact laws concerning spiritual matters that concerns land, and where they did not reach agreement the Council of Elders t

    III.            The Judiciary: The village assembly, the Council of Elders, the Age Grade, and the priest of deities in their various capacities takes the judicial decisions

Characteristics of Igbo Pre-colonial Political System as mentioned above were that their political system are noted for being  acephalous, gerontocracy, republican, democratic, highly decentralized, absent of tax system  and egalitarian etc.

 

Functions of the Age-Grade

The age grade in Igbo land has various functions to perform.

Ø  They serve as security by maintaining internal and external attack from others;

Ø  They sweep the community by keeping the place neat.

Ø  They also help in development by constructing roads and mending roads that is bad.

Ø  The age grade also fines their members who fail to meet up their demand.

Ø  They discipline any offender who is heady or have failed to abide by their rules and regulations.

Ø  The age grades engage themselves in social-cultural activities like dancing for entertaining the community for a festive period.

Ø  They maintain law and order

The Political Administrative Structure of the Oyo Empire (Yoruba land)

The vast Oyo Empire was known to be the largest and the most powerful of all Yoruba empires.
THE ALAAFIN: The Alaafin is the political head of the empire. He was chosen by the Oyomesi. It was claimed that he could only appear three times a year in public and that was only during some historical festivals or event.

THE AREMO: is the eldest son of the ruling Alaafin but cannot succeed his father at his demise. He can only help his father in the administrative system of the Empire.

THE OYOMESI: These are the seven hereditary kingmakers in the Oyo Empire. Their leader is Bashroun. Their duty is the installation of the new Alaafin when the time arises.

BAALE OR OBA: Each province was administered by Ajele or Oba. They guaranteed the payment of tribute and homage to the Alaafin. There was the claim that these rulers had the power to threaten any hardened Alaafin or chief by invoking the god of thunder and lightning through the cult of Sango, to a deified Alaafin.

THE ARMY (ESO): Are- ono kankanfo is the head of the army. Oyo had for long maintained a strong army that had been used in winning different wars. It was claimed that if the army should suffer any defeat, the Are- ona- kankanfo was to commit suicide or go on exile.

THE OGBONI SOCIETY: This society posse judicial powers and was involved also in policy making. The maintenance and preservation of the cultural values of the people were also delegated to them. They influence a lot of issues in the society.

THE THREE ENUCHES: are also involved in the administration of the Empire. Namely:

1. The Osi Efa: He was in charge of political affairs, which dies with the Alaafin and can also be called ‘Abobaku’.

2. The Ona Efa: meant for judicial purpose

3. The Otun Efa: functions for the religious duties of the Alaafin .

Based on what was known as the Yoruba history we can safely conclude that the Yoruba political system had a resemblance to the modern federal system of government. Pre-colonial systems in Nigeria witnessed a lot of alterations at the advent from the British colonial masters. Several traditional rulers tried to protect and preserve their political organization of their kingdoms or empires but were overpowered by the British government and later gave up after much pressure and threat from the colonial masters. Colonialism had a great impact on every pre- colonial system in Nigeria, which has come to stay even till today.