LESSON NOTE ON SSE 106 2022

 

SSE 106: Introduction to Nigerian Cultural Environment

Course Content/Course Outline

Man as the focus of Social Studies, Socialization, Agencies and Institutions; marriage, religion, legal and civic obligations, Rights and responsibilities of Citizen

Man as the focus of social studies

Social Studies goes about facilitating an understanding of the complexity of man, his problems, challenges and solutions, by using anal–out learning technique and strategy known as “Integration”. It is necessary for us to know this for proper understanding of social studies. Social Studies, as a discipline, it is no longer an appendage of the Social Sciences. The discipline which has gone a long way in emerging as a distinctive area of learning, the time or those days when it was treated as “a bit of history”, “a bit of geography” has gone. It is no longer a mixture or” hotchpotch”, a confused addition of bits and pieces of the Social Sciences and Humanities. This was sometimes referred to as “inter-disciplinary” form of teaching but not now.

The new emphasis is to conceive and implement Social Studies as an integrative discipline, and to impart themes from a unified angle. It may interest us to note that the reference to “problem” is to a specific challenge that requires solution through careful study and investigation. This is a matter that investigation inquiry, and discussion that would test to a solution. The type of research carried out for the social sciences are based on observation and inquiry.

Social studies is a corrective study because it is a subject which is concerned with the problems of man’s living in the society with a view of finding solutions to those problems. It is also a subject which concentrates on the three (3) areas of knowledge, cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. It centres on the development of man, how man influences his environment and how the environment influences him in return.

 Social studies focused on man and his interactions with his environment. It also keeps on changing because of the factors of time and human development. It fights against evil vices in the society. The subject considers peculiar problems of a country and finds solutions to those problems. As such the objective of Nigerian social studies must reflect the spirit of Nigerian philosophy of education. It must help to develop the capacity to learn and to acquire certain basic skills of listening, speaking, reading, writing and calculation. Social studies education focuses on the use of critical and reflective thinking to solve the problems of man’s survival in the environment.

Social studies is the study of people in relation to each other and to their world. It is an issue focused and inquiry-based interdisciplinary subject that draws upon history, geography, ecology, economics, law, philosophy, political science and other social science disciplines.  Social studies foster students’ understanding of and involvement in practical and ethical issues that face their communities and humankind.  Social studies is integral to the process of enabling students to develop an understanding of who they are, what they want to become and the society in which they want to live. (https://education.alberta.ca/media/159594/program-of-studies-k-3.pdf)

 It is a course of study that deals with human relationships and the way society works. Or the studies (as civics, history, and geography) that deal with human relationships and the way society works. It builds critical-thinking skills and deepens content-area knowledge across the four strands of social studies: history, civics, geography, and economics and man is not left out it is the man that thinks critically, acquires skills and knowledge.

The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) defines social studies as the integrated study of the social sciences and the humanities to promote civic competence. 

 

The NCSS states that “If the young learners of this nation are to become effective participants in a democratic society, then social studies must be an essential part of the curriculum throughout the elementary years. In a world that demands independent and cooperative problem solving to address complex social, economic, ethical, and personal concerns, core social studies content is as basic for success as reading, writing, and computing. Knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for informed and thoughtful participation in society require a systematically developed elementary program focused on concepts from the four core social studies disciplines: civics, economics, geography, and history.”

The National Council for the Social Studies has identified Ten Themes of Study for the Social Studies. These ten themes include:

1.      Culture

2.      Time, Continuity, & Change

3.      People, Places, & Environments

4.      Individual Development & Identity

5.      Individuals, Groups, & Institutions

6.      Power, Authority, & Governance

7.      Production, Distribution, & Consumption

8.      Science, Technology, & Society

9.      Global Connections

10.  Civic Ideals & Practices

Nigeria is a country located on the western coast of Africa (West Africa). Nigeria has a diverse geography, with climates ranging from arid to humid equatorial. However, Nigeria's most diverse feature is its people. Hundreds of languages are spoken in the country, including Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Hausa, Edo, Ibibio, Tiv, and English. Nigeria has three major groups namely: Igbo, Hausa-Fulani, and Yoruba. The culture in Nigeria is multi ethnic. The six largest ethnic groups are the Hausa and Fulani in the north, the Igbo in the southeast, and the Yoruba predominate in the southwest, the Tiv people of North Central Nigeria and the Efik - Ibibio.

  God also created man to be in charge of all the things that He created. Looking at man scientifically; Social studies focus on man and his environment. From the first beginning we discovered that man is essential, and that everything concerning life has revolved around man, in fact the whole universe centers around man. The world without man is incomplete. Man is a special being, given power by God to control every creature.  When God created man he said to him to be wise as serpent and gentle as dove. To be wise is to stay awake all the time using his initiatives to create and explore the world. Man is next to God, implying that he is  a demy god and is given all the powers to control and rule the world.

As a number, a “pet byte” means 1024 terabytes or a million gigabytes, so the average adult human brain has the ability to store the equivalent of 2.5 million gigabytes digital memory.

The 21 Social Studies connects man thinking with real world contexts from local to global scales. Social Studies education is essential in supporting man to interact with a difference within communities.

According to the National Council for Social Studies (NCSS), the primary purpose of social studies is to help young people make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world.

 We can create a sense of belonging for every child and many opportunities for civic action in our classrooms, schools, and communities. Sustained practice with social studies concepts, s of mind will foster learning and make good citizens in our nation.

Furthermore, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) contends that student learning should involve civic competence as part of preparation for college, career, and civic life. 

The standard of studies embraces the focus on civic life along with deep thinking about how people live together on earth.

Our state’s anchor standards compel students to:

• understand the facts, concepts, principles, and perspectives that shape social studies
• apply learning to complex situations and contexts
• think critically about important issues and communicate their findings
• engage in the processes of problem solving and discipline-based inquiry

 

The concept of socialization

Socialization otherwise known as ‘ internalization of culture’ is a lifelong process by which human beings transmit and learn particular thought, feeling and behaviour processes and patterns required for social perpetuation of, social adaptation to, and social transformation of, culturally determined conditioned and expectations, such as learning ones language, behaving according to the norms and values of the culture, understanding social roles one is expected to perform as one relate to others, and developing complex skills and techniques with which to adapt to as well as transform ones social and physical environment.   

Socialization is a learning process that begins shortly after birth.  Early childhood is the period of the most intense and the most crucial socialization.  It is then that we acquire language and learn the fundamentals of our culture.  It is also when much of our personality takes shape. 

 However, we continue to be socialized throughout our lives.  As we age, we enter new statuses and need to learn the appropriate roles for them.  We also have experiences that teaches us lessons and potentially lead us to alter our expectations, beliefs, and personality.  For instance, the experience of being raped is likely to cause a woman to be distrustful of others especially men.

Human infants are born without any culture.  They must be transformed by their parents, teachers, and others into cultural and socially adept animals.  The general process of acquiring culture is referred to as socialization.  During socialization, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as the roles we are to play in life.  For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters, friends, wives, and mothers.  In addition, they learn about the occupational roles that their society has in stock for them.  We also learn and usually adopt our culture's norms through the socialization process. 

Types of socialization

 Children are socialized according to different cultures we have two broad types of teaching methods--formal and informal.  Formal education is what primarily happens in a classroom.  It is usually structured, controlled, and directed primarily by adult teachers who are professionals.  In contrast, informal education can occur anywhere.  It involves imitation of what others do and say as well as experimentation and repetitive practice of basic skills.  This is what happens when children role-play adult interactions in their games.

Women and girls are the most crucial in socializing children.  Initially, mothers and their female relatives are primarily responsible for socialization.  Later, when children enter the lower school grades, they are usually under the control of their teachers. Even seemingly insignificant actions of parents can have major impacts on the socialization of their children. 

We have primary, secondary and adult socialization

Primary socialization: the primary aspect of socialization is the family this is where the children learn how to socialize with the family and are being thought the values and norms of the society. A well brought up child can never deviate from those norms that were being transferred to as a child. We can also see the primary socialization as those ones got from the nursery and primary school, at this stage the child is very tender and sees her teacher as a role model. The child sees the teacher as the most educated even when the parents are more educated than the teacher still the child believes in the teacher and values the teacher’s education more than the parents.

Secondary Socialization: when we talk about the secondary socialization our mind should go to school a bit higher than the nursery and primary school. At this stage we can say that the child has passed the stage of infantry.  It is an adolescent stage, a stage we call crisis stage. This time the child wants to be independent. He or she would like to confide in his/her friend. They also see themselves as an adult.  The child has known what is right or wrong. The child also can challenge the teacher in terms of knowledge. It is at this stage that the child meets peer groups that are very strong and can influence them. This stage a well brought up child can be influenced by the peers. Those that can be influenced are those that do not have strong self will. Most of the times are children from broken homes (divorced) or those from a quarrelsome family where the father and the mother fights every day, and some families that have some lapses. This stage is a critical stage for children in taking decision or making choice.

Adult socialization: this has to do with grownups socializing with friends. Socialization has no end we continue to socialize with people until we die. As an adult there are stages of adulthood: the early adulthood, the middle adulthood, and the aging years. According to Atkinson, Atkinson and Hilgard (1983: 98 ):

During the early adult years, people commit themselves to an occupation, and many will marry or form other types of intimate relationships. Intimacy means an ability to care about others and to share experiences with them. People who cannot commit themselves to a loving relationship – because they fear being hurt or are unable to share – risk being isolated. Studies indicate that an intimate relationship with a supportive partner contributes significantly to a person’s emotional and physical health. People who have someone to share their ideas feeling, and problems with are happier and healthier than those who do not have (Traupmann And Hatfield, 1981).  At this stage as the men and women marry they begin to procreate. As they have children the women divert their attention more on the children than the husband and life goes on.

Middle adulthood: they further explained that for many people, the middle years of adulthood (roughly ages 40-65) are the most productive period. Men in their forties are usually at the peak of their careers. Women have less responsibility at home now that the children are growing up and can devote more time to career or civic activities. This is the age group that essentially runs society, in terms of both power and responsibility. As people approach their fifties, they change their view of life span. They begin to think in terms of years left to live. For some people who have spent their years building a successful company may leave it to return to school. For women that have developed their family may develop a new career or become active in politics. Some people at this stage may decide to live the city and retire to the village. Based on stages in life we see the angle or direction where socialization is being channeled to.

The aging years: this is the year after 65years whereby new problems arises, as declining from physical strength and facing all sorts of sickness that demoralizes them and leave them in a state of helplessness.  This time is period of loneliness and less feeling of worth and self-esteem. The aged are also faced with loss of spouse, siblings, and relations which can make their life uncomfortable. The farness of their children also affects them. The type of socialization at this time is people coming for an advice and blessing. They also socialize with the children by telling those stories of the past and folk lore. Socialization has no end it continues until we die. That is why we say that it is for a lifelong. Old age is time of reflection that deeply looked into how the person faces the end of life. 

 Anticipatory socialization:  this refers to a process by which men learn the culture of a group with the anticipation of joining that group or belonging to the group. People learns the proper beliefs, values and norms of a status or group to which he aspires this is learning how to ach with his new role.

 Re-socialization:  refers to the process of discarding the former behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as part of transition in one’s life. This type of socialization takes place mostly when a social role is radically changed. It has to do with abandonment of one way of life for another which is not only different from the former but incompatible with it. For instance when an armed robber is rehabilitated his role changed radically.

Features of socialization:

1. Inculcates basic discipline a person may learn how to control his or her impulses.
2. Thereby showing disciplined behaviour to gain social approval.
3. It helps to control human behaviour: an individual from birth to death undergoes training and his behaviour is controlled by numerous ways. To maintain the social order, there are definite procedures or mechanism in society. These procedures become part of peoples life and human being gets adjusted to the society. As time goes on socialization, society intends to control the behaviour of its members unconsciously.
4.  Rapid socialization: there is rapid socialization if there is more humanity among the agencies of socialization is more unanimous in their ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, for instance the skills transmitted in home and those transmitted by school or peer, socialization of the individual tends to be slower and ineffective.
5. Socialization takes place formally and informally: formal socialization takes place through direct instruction and education in schools and colleges. Family is however, the primary and the most influential source of education. Children learn their language, customs norms and values in the family. 
6. Socialization is a continuous process: socialization is a life long process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult, internalization of culture continues from generation to generation. Society perpetuates itself through the internalization of culture, its members transmit culture to the next generation and society continues to exist.

Agents of socialization (Family, peer group, school, mass media, church, mosque, etc)

Socialization is a process by which culture is transmitted to the younger generation and men learn the rules and practices of social groups to which they belong. Through it that a society maintains it’s social system. Personalities do not come ready –made. The process that transforms a child into a reasonably respectable human being is a long process.

Hence every society builds an institutional framework within which socialization of the child takes place.

Culture is transmitted through the communication they have with one another and communication thus comes to be the essence of the process of culture transmission. In a society there exist a number of agencies to socialize the child. To facilitate socialization different agencies play important roles. These agencies however interrelated.

 

1. Family:  the family plays an outstanding role in the socialization process. In all societies other agencies besides the family contribute to socialization such as educational institutions, the peer group etc. but family plays the most important role in the formation of personality. By the time other agencies contribute to this process family has already left an imprint on the personality of the child. The parents use both reward and punishment to imbibe what is socially required from a child.

According to Robert, K. Merton, “it is the family which is a major transmission belt for the diffusion of cultural standards to the oncoming generation “The family serves as “the natural and convenient channel of social continuity.

2. Peer Group: peer group members a group in which the members share some common characteristics such as age or sex etc. it is made up of the contemporaries of the child, his associates in school, in play ground and in street. The growing child learns some very important lessons from his peer group. Since members of the peer group are at the same stage of socialization they freely and spontaneously interact with each other.

Conflict arises when standards of the peer group differ from the standards of the child family. He may consequently attempt to withdraw from the family environment. The peer group surpasses the parental influence as time goes on. This seems to be an inevitable occurrence in rapidly changing societies.

3. Religion: Religion plays a very important role in socialization. Religion instills the fear of hell in the individual so that he should refrain from bad and undesirable activities. Religion not only makes people religious but socializes them into the secular order.

4. Educational institutions: parents and peer groups are not the only agencies of the socialization in modern societies. Every civilized society therefore has developed a set of formalized agencies of education (schools, colleges and universities) which have a great bearing on the socialization process. It is in the educational institutions that the culture is formally transmitted and acquired in which the science and the art of one generation passed on to the next.

The educational institutions not only help the growing child in learning language and other subjects but also instill the concept of time, discipline, team work, cooperation and competition. Through the means of reward and punishment the desired behaviour pattern is reinforced whereas undesirable behaviour pattern meets with disapproval, ridicule and punishment.

 

In this way, the educational institutions come next to the family for the purpose of socialization of the growing child. Educational institution is a very important socialization and the means by which individual acquires social norms and values (values of achievement civic ideals, solidarity and group loyalty etc) beyond those which are available for learning in the family and other groups.

5. Occupation: in the occupational world the individual finds himself with new shared interests and goals. He makes adjustments with the position he holds and also learns to make adjustment with other workers who may occupy equal or higher or lower position.

While working, the individual enters into relations of cooperation, involving specialization of tasks and at the same time learns the nature of class divisions. Work, for him, is a source of income but at the same time it gives identity and status within society as a whole.

Wilbert Moore has divided occupational socialization into four phases:

(a)    career choice,

(b)    anticipatory socialization,

(c)    conditioning and commitment,

(d)   continuous commitment

(a)    Career Choice: the first phase is career choice, which involves selection of academic or vocational training appropriate for the desired job.

(b)   Anticipatory Socialization: the next phase is which may last only a few months or extent for years. Some children inherit their occupations. These young people experience anticipatory socialization throughout childhood and adolescence as they observe their parents at work. Certain individuals decide on occupational goals at relatively early ages. The entire adolescent period for them may focus on training for them may focus on training for that future.

(c)    Conditioning and Commitment: this takes places while one actually performs the work-related role. Conditioning consists of reluctantly adjusting to the more unpleasant aspects of one’s job. Most people find that the novelty of new daily schedule quickly wears off and realize that the parts of the work experience are rather tedious. Moore uses the term commitment to refer to the enthusiastic acceptance of pleasurable duties that come as the recruit identifies the positive task of an occupation.

(d)   Continuous Commitment: we can see this one as one that makes one indispensable. According to Moore, if a job proves to be satisfactory, the will enter the fourth stage of socialization. At this stage the job becomes an indispensable art of the person’s self identity. Violation of proper conduct becomes unthinkable. The person may choose to join professional association, unions or other groups which represents his or her occupation in the larger society.

6. Political Parties: political parties attempt to seize political power and maintain it. They try to win the support of the members of the society on the basis of a socio-economic policy and programme. In the process they disseminate political values and norms and socialize the citizen. The political parties socialize the citizen for stability and change of political system.

7. Mass Media: The mass media is for communication particularly television which play an important role in the process of socialization. The mass media of communication transmit information and messages which influence the personality of an individual to a great extent. In addition to this it have an important effect in encouraging individual to support the existing norms and values or oppose or change them. They are the instrument of social power. They influence us with their messages. The words are always written by someone and these people too authors and editors and advertisers join the teachers the peers and the parents in the socialization process.  

 Processes of socialization

 Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them. The children internalize whatever was thought to them at this stage. The process operates at two levels, one with the infant which is called the internalization of objects around and the other from the outside. Socialization may be seen as the internalization of social norms. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Social rules become internalized by the individual, in the sense that they are self-imposed by means of external regulation which is part of individual personality.  

 

 Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others -- from infancy. This process of socialization is looked as essential element of social interaction. This has to do with the individual becoming socialized with the accordance of the social norms which is the expectation of others. Socialization is filed up with social interactions. Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon; and all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad features: It is wise to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization and weave them into our lives.

 Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities.

Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to "teach us a lesson;" and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us. There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization; and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be -- especially if we learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, defeated or pessimistic about life. Through the process of socialization individuals becomes a social person and can attain his or her personality.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage: There are three types of marriage in Nigeria today: religious marriage, civil marriage, and traditional marriage. A Nigerian couple may decide to take part in one or all of these marriages. Religious marriages, usually Christian or Muslim, are conducted according to the norms of the respective religious teachings and take place in a church or a mosque. Christian males are allowed only one wife, while Muslim men can take up to four wives. Civil official weddings take place in a government registry office. Men are allowed only one wife under a civil wedding, regardless of religion. Traditional marriages usually are held at the wife's house and are performed according to the customs of the ethnic group involved. Most ethnic groups traditionally allow more than one wife.

Depending on whom you ask, polygamy has both advantages and disadvantages in Nigerian society. Some Nigerians see polygamy as a divisive force in the family, often pitting one wife against another. Others see polygamy as a unifying factor, creating a built-in support system that allows wives to work as a team.

While Western ways of courtship and marriage are not unheard of, the power of traditional values and the strong influence of the family mean that traditional ways are usually followed, even in the cities and among the elite. According to old customs, women did not have much choice of whom they married, though the numbers of arranged marriages are declining. It is also not uncommon for women to marry in their teens, often to a much older man. In instances where there are already one or more wives, it is the first wife's responsibility to look after the newest wife and help her integrate into the family.

Many Nigerian ethnic groups follow the practice of offering a bride price for an intended wife. Unlike a dowry, in which the woman would bring something of material value to the marriage, a bride price is some form of compensation the husband must pay before he can marry a wife. A bride price can take the form of money, cattle, wine, or other valuable goods paid to the woman's family, but it also can take a more subtle form. Men might contribute money to the education of an intended wife or help to establish her in a small-scale business or agricultural endeavor. This form of bride price is often incorporated as part of the wooing process. While women who leave their husbands will be welcomed back into their families, they often need a justification for breaking the marriage. If the husband is seen as having treated his wife well, he can expect to have the bride price repaid.

Though customs vary from group to group, traditional weddings are often full of dancing and lively music. There is also lots of excitement and cultural displays. For example, the Yoruba have a practice in which the bride and two or three other women come out covered from head to toe in a white shroud. It is the groom's job to identify his wife from among the shrouded women to show how well he knows his wife.

Divorce is quite common in Nigeria. Marriage is more of a social contract made to ensure the continuation of family lines rather than a union based on love and emotional connections. It is not uncommon for a husband and wife to live in separate homes and to be extremely independent of one another. In most ethnic groups, either the man or the woman can end the marriage. If the woman leaves her husband, she will often be taken as a second or third wife of another man. If this is the case, the new husband is responsible for repaying the bride price to the former husband. Children of a divorced woman are normally accepted into the new family as well, without any problems.

Domestic Unit: The majority of Nigerian families are very large by Western standards. Many Nigerian men take more than one wife. In some ethnic groups, the greater the number of children, the greater a man's standing in the eyes of his peers. Family units of ten or more are not uncommon.

In a polygamous family, each wife is responsible for feeding and caring for her own children, though the wives often help each other when needed. The wives also will take turns feeding their husband so that the cost of his food is spread equally between or among the wives. Husbands are the authority figures in the household, and many are not used to their ideas or wishes being challenged.

In most Nigerian cultures, the father has his crops to tend to, while his wives will have their own jobs, whether to be tending the family garden, processing palm oil, or selling vegetables in the local market. Children may attend school. When they return home, the older boys will help their father with his work, while the girls and younger boys will go to their mothers.

Inheritance: For many Nigerian ethnic groups, such as the Hausa and the Igbo, inheritance is basically a male affair. Though women have a legal right to inheritance in Nigeria, they often receive nothing. This is a reflection of the forced economic independence many women live under. While their husbands are alive, wives are often responsible for providing for themselves and their children. Little changes economically after the death of the husband. Property and wealth are usually passed on to sons, if they are old enough, or to other male relatives, such as brothers or uncles.

For the Fulani’s, if a man dies, his brother inherits his property and his wife. The wife usually returns to live with her family, but she may move in with her husband's brother and become his wife.

Kin Groups: While men dominate Igbo society, women play an important role in kinship. All Igbo, men and women, have close ties to their mother's clan, which usually lives in a different village. When an Igbo man dies, the body is usually sent back to his village to be buried with his kinsmen. If an Igbo man is disgraced or cast out of his community, his mother's kin will often take or accept him in.

For the Hausa, however, there is not much of a sense of wide-ranging kinship. Hausa society is based on the nuclear family. There is a sense of a larger extended family, including married siblings and their families, but there is little kinship beyond that. However, the idea of blood being thicker than water is very strong in Hausa society. For this reason, many Hausas will try to stretch familial relationships to the broader idea of clan or tribe to diffuse tensions between or among neighbors.

Socialization

 

Infant Care: Newborns in Nigerian societies are regarded with pride. They represent a community's and a family's future and often are the main reason for many marriages. Throughout Nigeria, the bond between mother and child is very strong. During the first few years of a child's life, the mother is never far away. Nigerian women place great importance on breast-feeding and the bond that it creates between mother and child. Children are often not weaned off their mother's milk until they are toddlers.

Children who are too young to walk or get around on their own are carried on their mother's backs, secured by a broad cloth that is tied around the baby and fastened at the mother's breasts. Women will often carry their children on their backs while they perform their daily chores or work in the fields.

Child rearing and Education: When children reach the age of about four or five, they often are expected to start performing a share of the household duties. As the children get older, their responsibilities grow. Young men are expected to help their fathers in the fields or tend the livestock. Young women help with the cooking, fetch water, or do laundry. These tasks help the children learn how to become productive members of their family and community. As children, many Nigerians learn that laziness is not acceptable; everyone is expected to contribute.

While children in most Nigerian societies have responsibilities, they also are allowed enough leeway to be children. Youngsters playing with homemade wooden dolls and trucks, or groups of boys playing soccer are common sights in any Nigerian village.

In many Nigerian ethnic groups, the education of children is a community responsibility. For example in the Igbo culture the training of children is the work of both men and women, within the family and outside it. Neighbors often look after youngsters while parents may be busy with other chores. It is not strange to see a man disciplining a child who is not his own.

All Nigerian children are supposed to have access to a local elementary school. While the government aims to provide universal education for both boys and girls, the number of girls in class is usually much lower than the number of boys. But nowadays the girls outnumber the boys. Recently like community with business enterprise boys in that area prefers going to learn trade to get quick money. You will find out that boys in Igbo land are no longer interested in schooling rather what interest them most is how to get rich. Sending every child in a family to school can often put a lot of strain on a family. The family will lose the child's help around the house during school hours and will have to pay for uniforms and supplies. If parents are forced to send one child to school over another, many will choose to educate boys before girls. But recently Nigerians especially in Igbo land has found out the importance of training girl’s child. It is said train a woman and you train a nation. It is only women that will remember their parents when they are old. Even though some of the boys may remember their parents at old age but they are not rampant; immediately a young man falls in love with a young woman anything concerning the in-law becomes his problem.

Religious Beliefs: It is estimated that 50 percent of Nigerians are Muslim, 40 percent are Christian, and that the remaining 10 percent practice various indigenous religions. While Muslims can be found in all parts of Nigeria, their strongest footholds are among the Hausa and the Yoruba. Islam in Nigeria is similar to Islam throughout the world. It is based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, which are outlined in the Qur'an.

Christianity is most prevalent in the south of Nigeria. The vast majority of Igbo are Christians, as are many Yoruba’s. The most popular forms of Christianity in Nigeria include Roman Catholic, Anglican, Presbyterian, Pentecostal, American Southern Baptist, and Methodist. Also, there are large pockets of Seventh-Day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses.

Conflict with the way some missionaries administered the churches during colonial times also created several breakaway African-Christian churches. Most of these adhere to the doctrines of Western churches but have introduced African music and tradition to their Masses. Some have even eased Christian restrictions on polygamy. In Benue state especially the Tiv’s, they celebrate their mass using their language and also songs and dances. They also introduce cultural dances during their wedding, which makes the ceremony so colourful.

Relations between Christians and Muslims are tense in many areas. Since late 1999, numerous clashes between the two have led to thousands of deaths. The northern city of Kaduna has been the flash point for many of these riots, as local leaders discussed whether to institute Shari'a law in the region. Demonstrations by Christians against the idea soon led to violent confrontations with Muslims. The debate over Shari’ a law and the violence accompanying it continue in many of the northern states. This is wrong religion should be seen as what one is born into which can be changed at any time. Nigerians got it wrong by fighting each other. we should understand that there is only one God. That same God is in Christian and Moslem. God is only one; and there is no reason for fighting each other. Politicians enjoy it when the two brothers and sisters are fighting as a result of religion thereby using them to gain their selfish aim. Let us take for instance what is happening in Kaduna state. There you see two sections whereby the Moslems are holding power and deprive the Christian to partake in politics. In the area Christian suffers and are neglected in terms of social amenities. Christians there are treated like slaves; whereby the section holding power maltreats others that are powerless. More work need to be done in that area, reorienting the belief of that people that Christians and Moslems are one since they are serving the same God. And also they are to note that our God is not sectional; He is for all.

While Islam and Christianity are the dominant religions in Nigeria, neither is completely free of influence from indigenous religions. Most people who consider themselves good Muslims or good Christians often also follow local religious practices. This makes up for perceived shortcomings in their religion. Most indigenous religions are based on a form of ancestral worship in which family members who have passed into the spirit world can influence things in the world of the living. This mixing of traditional ways with Islam has led to groups such as the Bori cult, who use spirit possession as a way to understand why people are suffering in this life. The mixing of traditional ways with Christianity has led to the development of the Aladura Church. Aladura priests follow basic Christian doctrine but also use prophecy, healing, and charms to ward off witchcraft. We can get those that practice Aladura in the western part of Nigeria known as the Yorubas and other minor ethnic groups from other places.

Many Nigerians follow the teachings of purely indigenous religions. Most of these religions share the idea that one supreme God created the earth and its people, but has left people to decide their own paths in life. Followers of the traditional Yoruba religion believe that hundreds of spirits or minor gods have taken the place of the supreme God in influencing the daily lives of individuals. Many Yoruba slaves who were taken to the Caribbean and the Americas brought this religion with them. There it was used as the basis of Santeria and voodoo.

Because the vast majority of Igbo converted to Christianity during colonialism, few practice the traditional Igbo religion, which is based on hundreds of gods, not a single creator known as Ezechukwu Abiama or Eze Chitoke. They believe that the small gods intercedes for them to the big and great God of which they are afraid to communicate directly. Every traditional rulers in Igbo land fears Ezechitoke as the Almighty God. Therefore they try to keep their hands straight. They also avoid sins like sleeping with someone’s wife, stealing, and killing, plotting against someone, and also promoting virginity. Some of the deities are being carried by a virgin girl and that make it powerful. In the olden days most young girls must be a virgin before getting married. Every mother at that time prays that her daughter does not disgrace her during the marriage ceremony. When the bride is a virgin the families are proud of such girl. It proves that the mother trained her well and must be congratulated by the people and also the husband. The pride of every girl is her virginity. Being a virgin makes the girl hold her shoulder high when it comes to infertility; only the man should be blamed.

 

 

Religious Practitioners: Although such personnel as Imams and teachers (Mallamai, Mallam)
 have no churchly functions or spiritual authority, they do tend to assume or accept some measure of spiritual authority in certain context. The Christians has Pastors and Rev. Fathers as those that are the spiritual authority. A lot of things have gone wrong today. That that we see as our spiritual directors commits all sorts of atrocities thereby killing the faiths of their members. Sometime we see some Christians converting to Islam and some Islam converting to Christians. It can also be as a matter of choice. In the actual sense church or Moslem cannot save any one; the only thing that can save us is our goodness that has to do with love. The most important thing in life is love, acceptance, accommodation and also being our brother’s keeper. We can never have one Nigeria except if we throw away our ethnic differences; whereby Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, and every other ethnic groups in Nigeria sees himself as a Nigerian, just as the Americans do. Ethnicity consciousness has killed Nigerians until we do away with it, and do away with religion. We should try to see religion as a matter of chance which you are found into and can be changed depending on the level of your education and understanding.

Rituals and Holy Places: Because many of the indigenous religions are based on various spirits or minor gods, each with influence over a specific area of nature, many of the traditional rituals are based on paying homage to these gods and spirits. Likewise, the area of control for a spirit also marks the places that are holy to that spirit. For example, a tribe's water spirit may have a specific pond or river designated as it is a holy place. The Kalabari, Okrika, and Ikwerre tribes of the Niger Delta region all have festivals in honor of water spirits sacred to their people. The Yoruba hold a twenty-day Shango festival each year to honor their god of thunder. Many Igbo consider it bad luck to eat yams from the new harvest until after the annual Yam Festival, a harvest celebration held in honor of the Igbo earth goddess land (Ani). Yam Festival is a great feast in Igbo land. Even some families in Igbo land cannot eat new yam without killing a fowl in commemorations of the new yam. Igbo people honour yam as the king of all crops and also are given titles for producing yam. Omereagu is a titled name given to a person who cultivates yams in quantum. Igbo’s cannot do without honouring yam which is celebrated every year.

Death and the Afterlife: Christian and Muslim in Nigerian believe that following death, a person's soul is released and judged by God before hopefully going on to Heaven. Many traditional religions, especially those of the eastern tribes, believe in reincarnation. In these tribes, people believe that the dead will come back as a member of his or her mother's or sister's family. Many in-depth ceremonies are necessary to prepare the body before burial. For example, if the person was inflicted with some physical disability, steps would be taken to prevent it from being passed on to him in the next life. An infertile woman may have her abdomen cut open before burial, so also a pregnant woman’s abdomen is cut open to bring out the child before burial or a blind man may have a salve made from special leaves placed over his eyes. It is believed that the soul can never rest except if it is buried. A befitting burial is what everyone looks up to; order wise the dead will not be happy in the spirit land. The Igbo’s are known for their flamboyant spending when it comes to burial. They sow new clothes as uniform, call committee of friends and task them on amount to pay in preparation of the dead. The most annoying thing is that when the person is alive nobody takes proper care him/her until death. At times when one dies the family cries not that they are missing the dead but what to spend (expenses) as the matter of death. It is compulsory that a cow should be used for the burial. In some culture all the children must buy cow for the burial. And for some they use goat for the burial in the years gone by. Nowadays it is like cow is compulsory in Igbo land for burring the dead especially mother and father.

Regardless of religion, Nigerians bury their dead. This is customary among Christians and Muslims, but it also is based on traditional beliefs that the body should be returned to the earth that sustained it during life. Dead bodies are given special treatment before burial. After the burial a great ceremony is followed. For a dead woman that has many children that are married; each and everyone must come along to pay homage to the Okpara in Igbo land. If the Okpara is married the wife’s family pays homage to the husband with some items according to the tradition of the people. A lot of expenses are made during burial; to the extent that some people borrow money expecting to pay after the burial.

Muslims are buried so that their heads face the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. For others, it is customary to bury a man with his head turned toward the east, so he can see the rising sun. A woman is buried facing west, so she will know when the sun sets and when it is time to prepare dinner for her husband in the next life. People also cover the body with black earth during burial because many believe that red earth will result in skin blemishes in the next life.

The ethnic groups in eastern Nigeria believe that the more music and dancing at a funeral, the better that person's chances of a successful afterlife. The size of funerals depends on the social standing of the deceased. Men are expected to set aside money that will be used to ensure they have a properly elaborate funeral. Women, children, and adolescents tend to have much less elaborated funerals.

Executive Agencies:

·         Department of Agriculture (USDA)

·         Department of Commerce (DOC)

·         Department of Defense (DOD)

·         Department of Education.

·         Department of Energy (DOE)

·         Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)

·         Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

·         Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

 

 

What is marriage?

Marriage is a union between a man and a woman such that the children born to the woman are recognize as legitimate offspring of both parents (Royal Anthropological Institute 1951). Marriage is not always between a man and a woman since it can be between a man and many wives (polygyny) or between a woman and two or more men (polyandry). Let’s take some example from Western Europe or America, recently they have recognized gay marriage which is same sex therefore marriage is no longer between a man and a woman but to a man and a man and a woman and a woman. So in African tradition it is an abomination and we must not buy these idea.

Marriage according to Giddens and Dunnier (2000) it is “a socially acknowledged and approved sexual union between two adult individual.”  This type of marriage has no legal backing or should be frowned at and even criticized; in an African content and even morally, it is unacceptable but may be acceptable to those who called themselves civilized nation. Furthermore the definition has no room for polygyny and polyandry indicating that it has no room for polygamy which is an umbrella word for the two (polygyny and polyandry). Having felt the purse of some scholars it can be seen that there is no uniform umbrella that defined marriage to be exactly one acceptable definition so it varies and depends on how society views it.

Let us delve into our Christian, Islamic, Hindu and African traditional faith concerning their views about marriage.

The Bible Defines Marriage as a Covenant

The marriage ceremony, therefore, is meant to be a public demonstration of a couple's commitment to a covenant relationship. ... For Christians, marriage goes beyond the earthly covenant also, as a divine picture of the relationship between Christ and his Bride, the Church (www.learnreligions.com>....> The new Testament).

The purpose of marriage in the bible is that: It is the union between Christ and his people, as one flesh. Such companionship and intimacy is a profound gift to be marveled at and enjoyed, bringing contentment and happiness. And in so enjoying, we bring glory to him—the creator of perhaps the greatest gift ever.

In Etymology the word "marriage" derives from Middle English marriage, which first appears in 1250–1300 CE. This, in turn, is derived from Old French, marier (to marry), and ultimately Latin, marītāre, meaning to provide with a husband or wife and marītāri meaning to get married.

In Islam, marriage is a legal contract between a man and a woman. Both the groom and the bride are to consent to the marriage of their own free wills. ... There is also Nikah Misyar, a non-temporary marriage with the removal of some conditions such as living together, permitted by some Sunni scholars. For further enquiry consult or read (Islamic marital jurisprudence · ‎Islamic marriage contract · ‎Category: Marriage in Islam).

Moreover, Islam, marriage is recognized as the basis of society. It is a contract but it is also a sacred covenant. Marriage as an institution leads to the uplift of man and is a means for the continuance of the human race. Most Muslims believe marriage is a fundamental building block of life. Marriage is a contract between a man and woman to live together as husband and wife. ... For most Muslims the purpose of marriage is to: keep faithful to each other for the rest of their lives, have children and bring them up in the Muslim faith.

 (www.bbc.co.uk>bitesize>guide>zcjqrws>revision)

Hinduism Marriage

Many Hindus see marriage as a life-long, sacred ceremony that binds a man and woman together. It takes the Hindu couple into the second ashrama and is believed by many to be the right situation in which to have children.

Marriage is also viewed by many Hindus as the right place in which to enjoy sexual pleasure, which is allowed as part of the life aim of kama. Many Hindu deities are portrayed as having partners and children:

v  Shiva and Parvati are the parents of Lord Ganesh

v  Rama and Sita had twins called Luv and Kush.

However, not all relationships in Hindu scriptures are conventional; in the Mahabharata, Draupadi is married to all five Pandava princes.

Vivah Sansksar is the term used to describe the sacraments performed during the wedding ceremony. This symbolises that the marriage is an important stage of life and will mark the beginning of a life-long union.( https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zh732sg/revision/6)

Arranged marriage

Traditionally, arranged marriages began from a need to find husbands and wives for those living in poverty and in villages. Travel was rare and people soon ran out of people to marry they were not related to.

Hindu teachings forbid people marrying anyone less than seven genetic steps removed; this means they cannot marry even distant cousins. This is taken seriously and the first thing many Hindus check about a suitable partner is whether they are related - even distantly. In the past, research relied on information from travelers or visitors about people in other villages. Sometimes, marriages would be arranged without the couple meeting beforehand, because they couldn't afford to travel.

Another motivation was that parents wanted to create a second family for their children, in case they died while the children were still young. A marriage may have been arranged while the children were very young

According to William Abraham (1987: 22): Marriage in African tradition is the joining of two families through the union of one man and one woman and their children, always to the exclusion of all other men as regards the woman, and in monogamous societies, to the exclusion of all other women as regards the man.

 Traditional marriage according to the historical norms of a given society is usually for the primary purpose of establishing a family. Although prenuptial customs vary in different cultures, a traditional marriage generally follows a period of courtship, public announcement of wedding plans, and a wedding ceremony.

It is also a marriage of husband and wife, wherein the former is the primary or sole breadwinner and the latter holds primary or sole responsibility for maintaining the home and managing child care.  (APA dictionary of Psychology,2020).

Marriage can be defined as the socially approved sexual union of two or more opposite adults and whose off springs are considered legitimate (Akpochafo, 2014).

Some common attributes of marriage

1.      Has to do with the involvement of males and females or persons of the opposite sex who have agreed to take each other as husband and wife;

 

2.      Some groups (especially the Catholic Church) is of the view that marriage is indissoluble but others believed that they can divorce and it is recognizable.

 

3.      The union allows for sexual interaction that may or not lead to the raising of children

 

4.      Marriage has to do with confirmation of certain rights and responsibilities

 

5.      Marriage connects together a wide range of people by creating kinship, parents, brothers, sisters, blood relatives of the partners and may even lead to connecting even communities, states and countries.

 

6.      It gives rights to each other’s sexuality, labour and property. To further buttress this idea it is the duty of the couple to satisfy each other sexually and should own things in common that is to say that what belongs the man equally belongs to the wife and vice versa.

 

Types of Marriage

                                                                   

Marriages are of different types based on the number and kinds of men and women involved in it, such as:

 

v  Polygyny: marriage between one woman and two or more men.

 

Polyandry: marriage between one woman and two or more men. The two best-known areas in which polyandry was studied and continued to be practiced into the 21st century are the Plateau of Tibet (a region shared by India, Nepal, and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China) and the Marquesas Islands in the South Pacific.

 

v  Polygamy: the practice or custom of having more than one wife or husband at the same time.

 

v  Fraternal Polyandry:  it a marriage in which several brothers share one wife. Example it is practiced among Tibetans in Nepal and parts of China, in which two or more brothers are married to the same wife, with the wife having equal "sexual access" to them.

 

v  Sororal Polyandry: marriage in which many sisters shares a particular man as their husband.

 

v  Levirate: marriage between a man and the widow of his elder brother

 

v  Sororate: marriage between a man and the sister of his dead wife

 

Ghost marriage: is marriage with a dead person or between dead people. In Chinese tradition, a ghost marriage is a marriage in which one or both parties are deceased. Other forms of ghost marriage are practiced worldwide, notably in France since 1959. The origins of Chinese ghost marriage are largely unknown, but reports of it being practiced today can still be found. Also in South Sudan, a ghost marriage is a marriage where a deceased groom is replaced by his brother. The brother serves as a stand in to the bride, and any resulting children are considered children of the deceased spouse. Under French law posthumous marriages are possible as long as evidence exists that the deceased person had the intention while alive of wedding their partner. ... According to Christophe Caput, the mayor who married Jaskiewicz, her request was "rock solid".

Child marriage: Child Marriage is defined as a marriage of a girl or boy before the age of 18 and refers to both formal marriages and informal unions in which children under the age of 18 live with a partner as if married. ... Child marriage violates children's rights and places them at high risk of violence, exploitation, and abuse. Giving a daughter in marriage allows parents to reduce family expenses by ensuring they have one less person to feed, clothe and educate. Families may also see investing in their son's education as more worthwhile investment. That is the purpose of child marriage.

Child Marriage is defined as a marriage of a girl or boy before the age of 18 and refers to both formal marriages and informal unions in which children under the age of 18 live with a partner as if married. Child marriage affects both girls and boys, but it affects girls disproportionately, especially in South Asia.

South Asia has the highest rates of child marriage in the world. Almost half (45%) of all women aged 20-24 years reported being married before the age of 18. Almost one in five girls (17%) is married before the age of 15.

Child marriage violates children’s rights and places them at high risk of violence, exploitation, and abuse. India has the largest number of brides in the world – one-third of the global total. Bangladesh has the highest rate of child marriage in Asia (the fourth highest rate in the world). Nepal has also one the highest rates of child marriage in Asia for both boys and girls.

Child marriage is declining (63% in 1985 to 45%t in 2010) in South Asia, with the decline being especially marked for girls under 15 (32% in 1985 to 17% in 2010). The marriage of girls aged 15-18 is however still commonplace, so more efforts are needed to protect older adolescents from marriage.

Child marriage is the result of the interplay of economic and social forces. In communities where the practice is prevalent, marrying a girl as a child is part of a cluster of social norms and attitudes that reflect the low value accorded to the human rights of girls.

UNICEF’s approach to ending child marriage in South Asia recognises the complex nature of the problem, and the socio-cultural and structural factors underpinning the practice. 

 

Solution

 

UNICEF’s approach to ending child marriage in South Asia recognises the complex nature of the problem, and the socio-cultural and structural factors underpinning the practice. UNICEF’s approach, therefore, envisions success in two timeframes. In the short term (5-10 years), UNICEF sees a critical mass of children, families, and communities changing their attitudes and behaviours; in the longer term (10-30 years), UNICEF sees aspirations for all children upheld by new social norms UNICEF considers five entry points to accelerate these changes:

(i)                 to increase agency and resources for adolescents – especially girls- at risk of and affected by child marriage;

 

(ii)                (ii) to enhance legal and development policy frameworks for an enabling environment that protects the rights of adolescent girls and boys;

 

(iii)             (iii) to increase the generation and use of a robust evidence base for advocacy, programming, learning and tracking progress;

 

(iv)             (iv) to enhance systems and services that respond to the needs of adolescents at risk of or affected by child marriage; and

 

(v)                (v) to increase social action, acceptance, and visibility around investing in and supporting girls, and shifting social expectations relating to girls, including by engaging boys and men. At the global level, child marriage is included in Goal 5 “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” under Target 5.3 “Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation”.

 

In 2016, UNICEF and UNFPA joined forces through a Global Programme to Accelerate Action to End Child Marriage in 12 countries with the highest rates of child brides. In South Asia, it is implemented in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. For the first time, existing strategies in areas like health, education, child protection and water and sanitation, are coming together to form a unique holistic programme with shared plans and goals. The programme will work in partnership woth governments, civil society organizations and yound people themselves and adopt methods that have proven to work at scale. (https://www.unicef.org/rosa/what-we-do/child-protection/child-marriage).

 

Cousin marriage: A cousin marriage is a marriage where the spouses are cousins (i.e. people with common grandparents or people who share other fairly recent ancestors). ... Worldwide, more than 10% of marriages are between first and second cousins. Marrying within a family can lead to abnormalities in your future offspring. This is because within a family, certain genetic traits remain dormant and are known as recessive genes (they are not seen as a disease or condition).

 Conflict in Marriage

Conflict in marriage is inevitable. In fact, not only is conflict in marriage inevitable, but it is also perfectly normal. It is a part of life.

 

Conflicts are bound to arise in terms of relationship in marriage. Conflict is said to be natural to human nature. This same conflict strengthens or tightens relationship in marriage. Clashes of interest lead to conflict. Every normal human being is bound to encounter conflict.

Marital conflict is not just a difference of opinion. Rather, it is a series of events that have been poorly managed so as to deeply damage the marriage relationship. The issues of marriage have festered to the point that stubbornness, pride, anger, hurt and bitterness prevent effective marriage communication.

 Researchers also have identified several major sources of conflict, i.e., violent behaviors of husbands, lack of cooperation in the family, inability to spend enough time together, issues related to children and other families, lack of effective communication, and financial problems.

We have various common problems in marriage such as:

v  Communication gap:  Most families complain about the way the spouse treat each other when it comes to communication. Bearing grudges can only lead to worsening the situation. Most men and women are complicated some refuse to bare their mind to the extent that they use silence measure to suffer each other. Lack of communication has caused one partner losing his or her life when in need of the other is urgently needed. Some persons with critical ailment need not to run out of communication, dialogue is the only solution for a happy family.

 

v  Ignominy: Every human being wants to be respected and be treated with high regard. No one enjoys shunning down or disgraced. Showing I don’t care attitude is a big problem in modern day marriage. More especially when the two have a mouth watering job. In this case nobody cares. Caring is the most important thing in marriage. The scripture says wife, be submissive to your husband and husband love your wife (Ephesians 5: 22 - 33). It's not uncommon for one spouse to try to change his or her partner but it should be handled with love and care.

 

v  Lack of Sexual Intimacy and satisfaction: a lot of reasons couples lose interest in sex ranging from medical problems to emotional issues.  Generally, sexual problems trigger a vicious cycle where it’s difficult to want sex when you feel emotionally distant from your partner and it’s difficult to feel emotionally attached without experiencing sexual intimacy. To get past sexual indifference, couples need to discuss and resolve their emotional issues.

 

v  Emotional or Sexual Infidelity: this is a great problem in the family. When a man or woman has no feeling for sex. This is mostly found in a woman that has reached menopause. Most of the time the husband complains and also may go outside for sexual satisfaction. Menopausal women should find a solution to see that they do not deny their husband sex. It is not a guarantee for men to go outside marriage in search of sexual satisfaction. The two should solve their problems together for a lasting solution for a peaceful marriage.

 

v   Fighting About Money: Some families fight for money which may lead to the end of the marriage. Every family should learn how to manage their finance no matter how little it is. When there is love, no matter how little is the money, can be managed. Family should learn to cut their cloth according to their size. The root of all evil is money; in the other way round money brings love, happiness and easy life. Working hard towards making money is also important. Wife and husband should stick together and work hard to make the ends meet. Today’s woman is no longer consumer of wealth but provider of wealth; therefore every woman should look up to a successful marriage.

 

 

v  Selfishness: This is the most dangerous way of life. A selfish husband can never make his wife happy so also applicable to a wife. The family should try to be selfless. This will bring the two together and united in love. The word “Myself” has caused a lot of havoc in the family. We should try to carry along our partner. Learning how to share no matter how small it is, is very important in life. It all begins in the family to train their child not to be selfish, and making the kids realizing the essence of sharing in fact at the cradle.

 

v  Value Differences: Our men must value the women. Treating a woman as a second class citizen is very wrong. For the fact that women are weaker sex men shouldn’t be taken advantage of that. Every woman should accord with respect from the husband. Men should learn that a poor woman today may become rich tomorrow; and what becomes the faith of the man when such happens. Husband should be careful the way he handles his wife. There should be value attached to every woman order wise there should be a problem. In the same vein a woman must value her husband, no matter how rich she is. Looking down on people is totally wrong. No human being is valueless. Everyone is important any time any day. Therefore husband and wife should value each other in other to raise a responsible children in society.

 

v  Different Life Stages:  We all have stages of life in our marriage. Starting from young stage to old stage. Every stage in marriage should be important. No stage should be neglected. Loneliness kills quickly. When the children are left (grown up) the husband and wife are meant to be together. The last stage in marriage is very critical. When the husband is dead it becomes a problem to the wife and also if it is the wife the husband becomes lonely and fragile. This stage is critical and it is expected that the children rally round their parents if the two are still alive. Even if it is one survivor, appropriate care must be given to the person. The person must never be lonely order wise may die or develop certain ailment that may lead him/her to grave. Every stage in married life should be handled with care for a long lasting marriage.

(https://collaborativedivorcetexas.com/ten-common-problems-marriage/)

 

 

RELIGION

Current definition of religion especially those of theological character are usually expressed in terms of belief. Sometimes religion is defined in terms of feeling, and sometimes in terms of conduct or conation, but the popular idea is that religion and belief are identical. James Martineau for instance defined religion as the belief in an ever living God that is a Devine mind and will ruling the universe and holding moral relations with mankind; Bishop Buttler, sees religion as the belief in one God or creator and moral Governor of the world and in a future state of retribution implying immorality and many writers among whom is the philosopher Immanuel Kant have made the belief in immortality the soul basis of religion.

Theology however, is not the only science which identifies religion with belief. Looking at the ethnographical side we find the same mistaken conception as a belief. De’ Quatrefages Letourneau, Topinard, Sir, John Lubbock and Prof. E.B. Tylor to mention only a few of these writers all defined religion in terms of belief. Moreso, Mr Herbert Spencer, calls it "an a priori theory of the Universe” bases religion upon the intellectual elements. It should be agreed that knowledge of belief is an element. In religion as a more or less specific beliefs is an in all religion as specific belief-for instance, the belief in God, in immortality , or in spiritual beings-we not only recognize an intellectual  element in religion but we make religion synonymous with a particular form of belief.

Religion: human beings’ relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, absolute, spiritual, divine, or worthy of especial reverence. It is also commonly regarded as consisting of the way people deal with ultimate concerns about their lives and their fate after death. In many traditions, this relation and these concerns are expressed in terms of one’s relationship with or attitude toward gods or spirits; in more humanistic or naturalistic forms of religion, they are expressed in terms of one’s relationship with or attitudes toward the broader human community or the natural world. In many religions, texts are deemed to have scriptural status, and people are esteemed to be invested with spiritual or moral authority. Believers and worshippers participate in and are often enjoined to perform devotional or contemplative practices such as prayer, meditation, or particular rituals. Worship, moral conduct, right belief, and participation in religious institutions are among the constituent elements of the religious life. In Nigeria, religion has been politicized. Our politician sees it as an avenue to poison the mind of the different religious practices for their selfish gain. Religion should be what unites us with God and people; so as to see each other as brothers and sisters, no matter where one finds oneself.  

The major religions of the world (Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism, Christianity, Taoism, and Judaism) differ in many respects, including how each religion is organized and the belief system each upholds. Other differences include the nature of belief in a higher power, the history of how the world and the religion began, and the use of sacred texts and objects.

Religion:  human beings’ relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, absolute, spiritual, divine, or worthy of especial reverence. It is also commonly regarded as consisting of the way people deal with ultimate concerns about their lives and their fate after death. In many traditions, this relation and these concerns are expressed in terms of one’s relationship with or attitude toward gods or spirits; in more humanistic or naturalistic forms of religion, they are expressed in terms of one’s relationship with or attitudes toward the broader human community or the natural world. In many religions, texts are deemed to have scriptural status, and people are esteemed to be invested with spiritual or moral authority. Believers and worshippers participate in and are often enjoined to perform devotional or contemplative practices such as prayer, meditation, or particular rituals. Worship, moral conduct, right belief, and participation in religious institutions are among the constituent elements of the religious life.

 (https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion)

Traditional Religion

In Nigeria, there are three main religions recognized by the people; Christianity, Islam and the Indigenous religion. These religions have differences that have brought about unrest as the tolerance level has got to a point of polarity. The various unrests have led to national insecurity of the country.

African religions, religious beliefs and practices of the peoples of Africa. It should be noted that any attempt to generalize about the nature of “African religions” risks wrongly implying that there is homogeneity among all African cultures. In fact, Africa is a vast continent encompassing both geographic variation and tremendous cultural diversity. Each of the more than 50 modern countries that occupy the continent has its own particular history, and each in turn comprises numerous ethnic groups with different languages and unique customs and beliefs. African religions are as diverse as the continent is varied. Nevertheless, long cultural contact, in degrees ranging from trade to conquest, has forged some fundamental commonalities among religions within sub regions, allowing for some generalizations to be made about the distinguishing features of religions indigenous to Africa. (With the exception of the influence of Christianity on New Religious Movements in Africa, religions that were introduced to Africa from elsewhere, such as Islam and Christianity, are not covered in this article.)

Religion today has taken a much-institutionalized form. Its origin has always been debated and discussed today by various scholars. In sociological terms, ‘Religion is a system of sacred belief and practices both in the tangible and intangible form’. Religion can serve the dual role of ideology as well as institution. Today, religion has assumed a more narrow-minded approach. However, understanding religion in the broad sense highlights the following important points about it in society:

Cultural Identity

Religion plays a crucial role for a person in giving a cultural identity. Each religion has festivals, traditions, mythologies which form a part of the tangible and intangible heritage of the country. Thus, religion contributes in order to protect this heritage and also adds to the diversity in the country.

Values and Ethics

Religion helps in creating an ethical framework and also a regulator for values in day to day life. This particular approach helps in character building of a person. In other words, Religion acts as an agency of socialization. Thus, religion helps in building values like love, empathy, respect, and harmony.

Spiritual Connect

People are always on the quest of fulfilling the economic and material pursuits in today’s world. It is the religion which plays a crucial role in establishing our connection to the divine and developing the belief that there is a supreme energy that acts as a regulator in our day to day lives. Thus, the components of prayer, chants, hymns, etc. create the spiritual bond.

The Idea of Welfare

Each and every religion promotes its philosophy and the crux of it has always been the welfare and wellness of the people. For example, in the Sanatana Dharma, there are ideas like Vasudaiva Kutumbakam (the whole world is a family), Sarve Sukhina Bhavantu (let everyone be happy) which nurture and cultivate love and compassion in the society.

(https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what-is-the-importance-of-religion-in-our-lives)

 

Benefits of Religion

Religion has been a feature of the world for as long as it came into existence. Different religious traditions have played a major role in the evolution of society. This is a look at some of the benefits that the world has received from religion.

The main benefits of religion include:

1.      Teachings of goodwill and the golden rule (do unto others what you want others to do to you)

2.      Promoting ethics and good morals in political, social and economic life

3.      Inner strength and courage to do the right thing always

4.      The message of forgiveness and love

5.      Religious art/music

6.      Instigation of Fear of God

7.      Sense of community and belonging

8.      Selfless Service and regards on others

“Each religion has helped mankind. Paganism increased in man the light of beauty, the largeness and height of his life, his aim at a many-sided perfection; Christianity gave him some vision of divine love and charity; Buddhism has shown him a noble way to be wiser, gentler, purer, Judaism and Islam how to be religiously faithful in action and zealously devoted to God; Hinduism has opened to him the largest and profoundest spiritual possibilities. “ Sri Aurobindo (Essays in Philosophy and Yoga, p.211)

Religion has often been a vehicle for intolerance and fundamentalism; religion has been used as an excuse for persecution and war. But, religion in its purest form has provided many benefits for humanity.

Teachings of goodwill and the golden rule

“We must be bright and cheerful. Long faces do not make religion. Religion should be the most joyful thing in the world, because it is the best.”

Swami Vivekananda founder of Hindus Religion

One of the greatest spiritual leaders of India, Swami Vivekananda is credited with bringing the glory of the Hindu philosophy to the global platform. Born on January 12, 1863, as Narendra Nath Datta in Kolkata into an aristocratic Bengali Kayastha family, he became a deciple of the famed saint of Dakshineshwar, Swami Ramkrishna Paramhansa. He renounced worldly pleasures and became a sanyasi, not to roam aimlessly, but for the service of humanity. Swami Vivekanada was a key figure for introducing the Indian Vendanta and philosophies of Yoga to the world which put India on the world's spiritual map. It was his famous speech at the World’s Parliament of Religions in Ch

INSPIRING QUOTE OF VIVEKANANDA HINDUS PHILOSOPHY

          i.            “Strength is Life, Weakness is Death. Expansion is Life, Contraction is Death. Love is Life, Hatred is Death.”

     ii.        “The greatest religion is to be true to your own nature. Have faith in yourselves.”

   iii.        “Talk to yourself once in a day, otherwise you may miss meeting an intelligent person in this world."

   iv.        "Truth can be stated in a thousand different ways, yet each one can be true."

     v.        “The great secret of true success, of true happiness, is this: the man or woman who asks for no return, the perfectly unselfish person, is the most successful.”

   vi.        “In a day, when you don't come across any problems - you can be sure that you are travelling in a wrong path”

  vii.        “In a conflict between the heart and the brain, follow your heart. ”

viii.        “Take up one idea. Make that one idea your life; dream of it; think of it; live on that idea. Let the brain, the body, muscles, nerves, every part of your body be full of that idea, and just leave every other idea alone. This is the way to success, and this is the way great spiritual giants are produced.”

      ix.            "Be the servant while leading. Be unselfish. Have infinite patience, and success is yours."

     x.        “You have to grow from the inside out. None can teach you, none can make you spiritual. There is no other teacher but your own soul.”

Within all religions, there are teachings of goodwill to our fellow men. The golden rule of religious teaching is to treat others as we would like to be treated ourselves. At the World Parliament of Religions (1993), a declaration towards a Global Ethic was made. This principle was signed by 143 leaders from the major faiths. The simple declaration read:

“We must treat others as we wish others to treat us”

Two passages from Gospels quote Jesus Christ in espousing the Golden Rule.

“Do to others what you want them to do to you. This is the meaning of the law of Moses and the teaching of the prophets.”

 

Matthew 7:12

This principle is often ignored by votaries of religion, but without ethical teachings propagated by religions, there would have been even more conflict and division in the world. Religious ethics, such as the Golden Rule do provide a basis for encouraging better human behaviour.

Role in promoting ethics in political, social and economic life

It is true many adherents of religion have ignored the important religious teachings of goodwill and equality. But, a higher message of religion is that man is equal before God. This principle has inspired some religious reformers to campaign against injustice. For example, in the Nineteenth Century, many of the opponents of slavery were motivated by a belief that racism and slavery were incompatible with religious teachings on the inherent divinity of all men. For example, the Quakers, and Christians like William Wilberforce sought to end slavery because they believed slavery was incompatible with Christian charity. it also brings people together in love and understanding. Religion promote our economic life in terms of buying and selling of sacramental and also being honest in selling our products.

Inner strength and courage to do the right thing

Religious faith has often been a source of courageous action. For example, many who opposed Hitler’s Nazi ideology were motivated by their religious faith; this includes people like Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Maximilian Kolbe and Bernhard Lichtenberg. Religious faith can be a source of courage to fight oppression. when someone has faith the person is fearless and believing strongly in the power of God or whatever they believe on. Faith they say can move mountain.

The message of forgiveness and Love

Some of the world’s great acts of forgiveness have been motivated by a religious ethic and faith in the importance of forgiveness. For example, Martin Luther King frequently used Christian language to preach a message of peace and forgiveness. Other great leaders inspired by religious teachings on forgiveness include Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela and the 14th Dalai Lama. Christian believes in forgiveness of sin and also to love one another. If we cannot forgive we cannot love; since it is the love that help us to forgive.

Man’s Thirst for the Unknowable

Man continues to explore until he dies. The religious urge to discover more about life has never left man. From primitive civilizations to the acme of Western civilization, there have always been people unsatisfied with a purely materialistic interpretation of life. This has encouraged people to give priority to an inner life of prayer and meditation as well as outer achievements. Religion can give an opportunity for man to attain the ‘peace that passed understanding’. Religion holds the promise of ultimate enlightenment. Buddhism teaches the goal of Nirvana

The ancient Upanishads are embedded in the Vedas, the oldest of Hinduism's religious scriptures, which some traditionally consider to be apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman" and "impersonal, authorless".

The Hindu Upanishads state:

“From Delight we came into existence.

In Delight we grow.

At the end of our journey’s close, into Delight we retire.”

Selfless Service

Religious teachings emphasize the need for serving our fellow man. The loftiest teaching is to do this selfless service without expectation of reward or praise but to work with a feeling of oneness and identification with other people. In its purest form, religion can inspire people to serve the welfare of others, not out of ego, but out of a sense of divine duty. This principle of selfless service is found in all the main religions and has led to the foundation of many charitable works.

Religious Music

Within the context of religion, some of the most profound, moving and sublime music has been created. Even a non-religious person can appreciate the divine sacred music of Beethoven, Bach or Schubert. In Indian and Asiatic religion there is a similar strand of richly devotional music, that has enriched human culture.

Religious Art

“Religion, like poetry, is not a mere idea, it is expression. The self-expression of God is in the endless variety of creation; and our attitude toward the Infinite Being must also in its expression have a variety of individuality – ceaseless and unending.”

 Rabindranath Tagore

Rabindranath Tagore FRAS was a Bengali polymath who worked as a poet, writer, playwright, composer, philosopher, social reformer and painter. He reshaped Bengali literature and music as well as Indian art with Contextual Modernism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Leader of the Brahmo Samaj, which was a new religious sect in nineteenth-century

During the Renaissance, it was often organized religion which was the greatest patron of the arts. The Catholic Church patronized some of the greatest works of Michelangelo an Italian sculptor, painter, architect and poet of the High Renaissance; such as the Sistine Chapel and the Pieta. The purest form of religion encourages the highest expression of the Divine through the artistic form.

New Thought

Religion is often associated with long-standing dogmas, but religious and spiritual movements often begin as dynamic movements, which establish existing political, cultural and religious norms. Religious teachers, such as Jesus Christ, the Buddha, Guru Nanak challenged many social norms, such as caste systems and ossified social customs. Religion can become stale and ossified itself, but religious leaders and new spiritual movements have the capacity to think outside the box and offer different paths for people to follow.

Sense of community and belonging

Religion can be a main focus of the community. It can bring people together as they share common aspirations to lead a better life. A church, mosque or synagogue can be the centre of community life and provide an outlet for people to find friendship and common sense of purpose. Religion is more likely to cultivate a sense of community rather than just individuality.

(https://www.biographyonline.net/spiritual/articles/benefits-religion.html)

Functions of Religion

The structural-functional approach to religion has its roots in Emile Durkheim’s work on religion. Durkheim argued that religion is, in a sense, the celebration and even (self-) worship of human society. Given this approach, Durkheim proposed that religion has three major functions in society: it provides social cohesion to help maintain social solidarity through shared rituals and beliefs, social control to enforce religious-based morals and norms to help maintain conformity and control in society, and it offers meaning and purpose to answer any existential questions. Further, Durkheim placed himself in the positivist tradition, meaning that he thought of his study of society as dispassionate and scientific. He was deeply interested in the problem of what held complex modern societies together. Religion, he argued, was an expression of social cohesion.

Religion, for Durkheim, is not imaginary, although he does deprive it of what many believers find essential. Religion is very real; it is an expression of society itself, and indeed, there is no society that does not have religion. We perceive as individuals a force greater than ourselves and give that perception a supernatural face. We then express ourselves religiously in groups, which for Durkheim makes the symbolic power greater. Religion is an expression of our collective consciousness, which is the fusion of all of our individual consciousness, which then creates a reality of its own.

It follows, then, that less complex societies, such as the Australian Aborigines, have less complex religious systems, involving totems associated with particular clans. The more complex a particular society is, the more complex the religious system. As societies come in contact with other societies, there is a tendency for religious systems to emphasize universalism to a greater and greater extent. However, as the division of labor makes the individual seem more important, religious systems increasingly focus on individual salvation and conscience.

The primary criticism of the structural-functional approach to religion is that it overlooks religion’s dysfunctions. For instance, religion can be used to justify terrorism and violence. Religion has often been the justification of, and motivation for, war. In one sense, this still fits the structural-functional approach as it provides social cohesion among the members of one party in a conflict. For instance, the social cohesion among the members of a terrorist group is high, but in a broader sense, religion is obviously resulting in conflict without questioning its actions against other members of society.

Marx and the “Opiate of the Masses”

Karl Marx argues that religion works to calm uncertainty over our role in the universe and in society, and to maintain the status quo.

One of the most frequently paraphrased statements of Karl Marx -  , religion is the opium of the people. It was translated from the German original, “Die Religion… ist das Opium des Volkes,” and is often referred to as “religion is the opiate of the masses. ” Taken in context, Marx is arguing that religion was constructed by people to calm uncertainty over our role in the universe and in society.

Early social theorists offered explanations and analysis of religion in terms of the function of religion in society, the role of religion in the life of the individual, and the nature (and origin) of religion. With ‘the social-conflict approach,’ Karl Marx argues that religion plays a significant role in maintaining the status quo. Marx argues that religion accomplishes this by promising rewards in the after-life rather than in this life. By focusing attention on otherworldly rewards, religion pacifies members by providing a worldview that deflects attention that would otherwise be directed at the inequalities of this world.

For further study visit: (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-functionalist-perspective-on-religion/).

TYPES OF RELIGION

1.       African Religion;

2.       Anatolian Religion; 

3.      Ancient Iranian Religion;

4.       Arabian Religion; Baltic Religion;

5.       Buddhism; Calvinism;

6.       Celtic Religion;

7.       Christianity; 

8.      Confucianism;

9.       Daoism; Eastern Orthodoxy; 

10.  Eastern Rite Church; 

11.  Egyptian Religion;

12.   Finno-Ugric Religion;

13.   Germanic Religion And Mythology; 

14.  Greek Religion;

15.   Hellenistic Religion; 

16.  Hinduism;

17.   Islam;

18.   Jainism; 

19.  Judaism; 

20.  Mesopotamian Religion;

21.   Middle Eastern Religion; 

22.  Mormon; 

23.  Mystery Religion;

24.   Native American Religions;

25.   Neo-Paganism; 

26.  New Religious Movement; 

27.  Old Catholic Church; 

28.  Orphic Religion;

29.   Prehistoric Religion; 

30.  Protestantism; 

31.  Protestant Heritage, The; Roman Catholicism;

32.   Roman Religion;

33.   Shintō; 

34.  Sikhism; 

35.  Slavic Religion;

36.   Syrian And Palestinian Religion;

37.   Vedic Religion;

38.   Wicca; 

39.  Zoroastrianism. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion)