Year One First Semester
POL
111- Introduction to Political Science
(1 credit load)
COURSE
OUTLINES YEAR ONE
AREA TO COVER
FOR THIS COURSE
The
course intended to inculcate in the student knowledge of the basic elements and
concepts in political science:
a)
The
nature and scope of political science
b)
The
relationship of political science with other disciplines such as History,
Economics, Sociology, Psychology, Geography and Law, & Religion and
Ethics
c)
Basic
concept of power, nation, authority, legitimacy, sovereignty and democracy
d)
constitution,
political culture, political socialization and political participation
e)
government and its organs
f)
Delegated
authority
g)
Leadership
and followership
h)
Process
of electoral campaign and voting
COURSE
OBJECTIVES
(i)
To introduce us to what politics and political science are all about.
(ii)
To highlight the major areas within Political Science as a field of study and
show how these relates to other subjects in the Social Sciences.
(iii)
The course intend to expose us the
societal beliefs norms and also basic concepts in political science e. g. power, nation, authority legitimacy,
democracy, constitution etc.
(iv)
To show us that all activities of
government affect our lives the electoral processes and that politics is very
important in every society.
OBJECTIVES
At
the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a)
Explain
the nature and scope of political science
b)
State
the relationship of political science and other disciplines.
c)
Be able the discus some of the basic concept
of political science or tools for an effective leadership for a peaceful
democracy.
DEFINITIONS OF POLITICS
The term `politics‟,
is derived from the Greek word `Polis‟, which means the city state According to
Greek Philosophers, Politics was a subject which dealt with all the activities
and affairs of the city state. Their City States were known as `Polis‟. City
state was an all inclusive term, as the ancient Greeks made no distinction
between the state and the Government on one hand, and State and Society on the
other. They never differentiated between personal life and social life. Hence
according to them Politics was a total study of man, society, state, morality
and so on. Politics as the study of the state: Traditionally Political
science is a science of state. Political thinkers like R.G. Gettel, J.W.
Garner, Bluntschli and many others were of the view that political science were
the study of the state. R.G. Getlel
defined “Political Science as a study of state in the past, present and
future and of Political institutions and Political theories”. J.W.Garner States, “Political Science
begins and ends with the state”
Politics as the study of the Government: Some Political Scientists like Paul Janet, George Catlin, Hans Eulan have accepted the view which states that politics deals with the state and government. Paul Janet writes “Political Science is concerned with the foundations of the state and principles of government. George Catlin states “Politics means either the activities of political life or the study of these activities. And these activities are generally treated as activities of the various organs of government.” Prof Hans Eulan considers in his definition of politics that the study of formal government is a fundamental concern of politics.
Political Science is the modern discipline for the study of politics and political processes and the organization of the state. Traditionally, Political Science has often been studied by means of volume and very large textbooks; this guide provides the student with concise understanding of the basic principles and focuses on views that are germane in the study of Political Science. To study this course, and the various units, students need to be ready to think critically and analytically. They also need to develop a constructive minds to be able to weigh different arguments carefully, trying to determine which arguments they find most plausible, convincing and why. This will enable the student decipher properly which positions they would like to take without being a “copy-cat” student. Probably if it is by understanding different positions that one can develop one’s ability, should be encouraged.
Politics can be played at a national level or internationally. At the national level, the failure of the Nigerian political elite between1962-66 gave the military the opportunity to intervene in our political process. History repeated itself in 1983 when the political elite again failed to settle their differences following the 1983 October general elections. Again, the military employing their monopoly over the use of force and the acquiescence of the Nigerian people swept the political elite off the political stage and ruled until 1999. Similarly, it was politics at the international level when the Palestinian and the Israelites partly resolved their age-long military/ideological confrontation over Palestinian home land in Gaza. Moreover, it was a political action/decision when ECOMOG troops were sent by West African States to war-torn Liberia for peace-keeping operations. This helped to stop the fighting from getting worse. Presently, Peace has returned to Liberia after 15 years of fighting.
Another
definition of politics or political science is that it is a study of activities
of cooperation, negotiation and struggle over the use, production and
distribution of resources. This definition highlights another very vital aspect
of political science. There are various types of resources available in any
society. The production and distribution of these resources are to be preceded
by definite policy on the part of the government or authority, cooperation
among various agents involved in the production and distribution of resources.
The scope of Political-Science means the subject matter or content of Political Science. Various Political thinkers are not in agreement about the exact scope of politics. The lack of precise definition and terminology has created confusion regarding the subject matter of Political Science. Despite the ambiguity and controversy in the field various aspects included in the study of political science based on an outcome of a conference of political thinkers held in Sept 1948 at the UNESCO House decided the scope of Political Science as thus:
v Political Science is the study of Political theories: Over the centuries, Political scientists have concerned themselves with formulating political theories and political ideas. e.g., Plato explained theory of Ideal State, Theory of justice, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau explained theory of origin of state. These theories enable us to organize their observations and offer a foundation on which future observations and analysis can be based.
v Political Institutions: Study of Political Science includes the study of various constitutions, various systems of government their merits, demits etc. e.g. Whether it is parliamentary, presidential, dictatorial, democratic, coalition form of government. Such a study helps us to reform out political institutions in order to realize our goals.
v Political Parties and Pressure Groups: It studies the various systems of political parties, their role and importance. Pressure groups and interest groups are becoming more important. Political science studies their role, methods etc. in a given political system. This makes the study of Political - Science more realistic. Opposition political parties, pressure groups Non-Governmental organizations (NGOS) do not directly form the government. They indirectly influence governmental policies and decisions. Hence the study of governance (act of governing) is incomplete if it is limited to the study of government.
v International Relations: It includes the study of international organization, and policies. States do not live in isolation. Domestic Policy and foreign Policy are interrelated. Hence the study of international relations becomes significant more in the times of globalization.
v Political Science is the study of the relationship between government and civil society: The state is comprised of two entities: government and civil society. Both entities influence governance in different ways. Civil society includes citizens, Non-governmental Organization (NGOS), pressure groups, opposition Political parties. Civil society influence governance indirectly, by influencing the government and convincing it to adopt certain policies. Whereas the government possesses the power and authority to influence governance directly. Hence the relationship between government and civil society is an important determinant of governance in the state. Political Science Studies this relationship in order to better understand the nature of the state and the efficacy of governance.
v It is the study
of Power, Authority, Influences, Political activities, Political Processes: Political
Science is normative as well as empirical. Normative approach of Political
Science studies norms, ideals, morals, principles, philosophy of Political
Science e.g. what should be the nature of the state etc. Empirical approach of
political Science observes and analyses political activities and institutions
as they are in a scientific way. Based on the contributions of Morgenthau he
stated that the scope of Political-Science includes three branches :
a) Political
Sociology
b) Political
theory and
c) Political Institutions.
Modern political Scientists feel that man’s social life is an integrated whole. Any change in man’s social environment has repercussions on man’s political life. The modern state cannot escape from that impact of the social, psychological, economic and cultural forces. According to Leacock Political Science must not content itself with a mere analysis of Political institutions as existing at any given time, it must take account of the process of change and evolution, and the alteration of social and intellectual environment.”
v Master Science: Aristotle called
political science the `Master Science‟ because Politics determines the
environment within which every person will organize his life. No individual can
claim that he/she has nothing to do with Politics. There is no way we can
escape from the parameters set by politics. The ancient Greeks never made any
distinction between man’s personal life ‘and political life. According to them
Politics is the total study of man, Society, State, Morality etc.
v Study of Political system and its environments: Varied political systems exist and function in different environment. Political science studies them with reference to the response given and feedback secured. The policies of one system have an impact on the other systems. More so, political decisions are not made in vacuums. They are influenced by economic structure, social institutions and the whole environment in which the state functions.
The Nature of the Relationship between Political Science and Other Disciplines
Political
science usually is viewed as one of the social sciences, which is integrated
with other disciplines such as: history, anthropology, economics, psychology,
and sociology etc. Its relationship to these disciplines can be seen from two
perspectives. Some say that political science occupies a central position
because the human and social concerns of the other social sciences must take
place within and be affected by the political beliefs, practices, and authority
that exist everywhere. The opposite view is that political science is the
“handmaiden” of the other social sciences because it depends on them for its
concepts, methods, and understandings.
Whichever side
one takes, it remains true that throughout the nearly 100-year history of
political science as an academic field, first one and then another of the other
social sciences has been seen as the key to comprehension of political matters.
History
History is the study of
the human past as it is described in the written documents left by human
beings. History is a narration of the events which have happened among
mankind, including an account of the rise and fall of nations, as well as of
other great changes which have affected the political and social condition of
the human race. John J. Anderson. 1876. A Manual of General History.
History is not what one thought, but what one remembers. It is said that people learns from history so political science cannot do without this subject. Therefore there are so much ties between the two.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of human diversity around the world. Anthropologists look at cross-cultural differences in social institutions, cultural beliefs, and communication styles. They often seek to promote understanding between groups by "translating" each culture to the other, for instance by spelling out common, taken-for-granted assumptions.
Furthermore, Anthropology is the
study of people. In this discipline, people are considered in all their
biological and cultural diversities, in the present as well as in the
prehistoric past, and wherever people have existed. Students are introduced to
the interaction between people and their environments to develop an
appreciation of human adaptations past and present. Anthropology explores
what it means to be human. Anthropology is the scientific study of humankind in
all the cultures of the world, both past and present.
Economics
A
recent review of economics definitions includes a range of those in principles
textbooks, such as descriptions of the subject as the study of:
·
the economy,
·
the coordination process,
·
the effects of scarcity,
·
the science of choice,
·
human behavior,
·
Human beings as to how they
coordinate wants and desires,
·
given the decision-making
mechanisms,
·
social customs, and
·
political realities of society.
It
concludes that the lack of agreement need not affect the subject matter that
the texts treat. Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular
definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes
economics is evolving, or should evolve.
(Backhouse, & Steven, 2009).
The
philosopher Adam Smith (1776)
defines the subject as “an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of
nations”, in particular as:
a
branch of the science of a statesman or legislator (with the twofold objective
of providing) a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... (and) to
supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the public services.
MEANING OF
ECONOMICS:
The word ‘Economics’ originates from the Greek work ‘Oikosnomos’ which can be
divided into two parts: (a) ‘Oikos’, which means ‘Home’, and (b) ‘Nomos’, which
means ‘Management’. Thus, Economics means ‘Home Management’. The head of a
family faces the problem of managing the unlimited wants of the family members
within the limited income of the family. In fact, the same is true for a
society also. Economics is the social science that studies economic activities.
This definition is, however, too broad. It does not specify the exact manner in
which the economic activities are to be studied. Economic activities
essentially mean production, exchange and consumption of goods and services.
However, with the progress of civilization, the complexity of the production,
exchange and consumption processes in society have increased manifold.
The definition of economics can be classified into
four groups:
1. Wealth
definitions,
2. Material
welfare definitions,
3. Scarcity definitions, and
4.
Growth-centered definitions.
Adam Smith’s Definition considered to be the
founding father of modern Economics, defined Economics as the study of the
nature and causes of nations’ wealth or simply as the study of wealth. The central
point in Smith’s definition is wealth creation. Implicitly, Smith identified
wealth with welfare. He assumed that, the wealthier a nation becomes the
happier are its citizens.
The legal aspects of definition of Geography is a science involving the study of the surface of the earth, the location and distribution of its physical and cultural features, the areal patterns or places that they form, and the interrelation of these features as they affect humans.
Increasingly, geographers are utilizing geographic information systems (GIS) technology to create computerized maps that can track information such as population growth, traffic patterns, environmental hazards, natural resources, and weather patterns. They then use the information to advise governments on the development of houses, roads, or landfills
Geography is the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere, and of human activity as it affects and is affected by these, including the distribution of populations and resources and political and economic activities
Political science is inclusive of all the elements that run the nation. The subject helps us to understand what a state, nation is, and citizens etc. it also helps us to understand the bureaucracy and responsibilities of government day to day’s activities. Political science also helps us understand that law and order are prime functionaries of any state. Law on the other hand is the maker of punishments for all the offences that destabilize peace and harmony in the state. Both work proportionally. Politics works on promoting welfare state and law protects it from anti social elements.
Law: is a set of rules, enforceable by the courts, regulating government of a state, relationship between the organs of government and the subjects of the state, and the relationship or conduct of subjects towards each other. Law can also be defined as a rule or body of rules made by the legislature, a rule or body of rules made by a municipal or
other authority. Law is the system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the actions of their members and also may be enforced by imposition of penalties. This then means that anybody that breaks the law is punished based on the enormity of the crime. Law may be defined as a body of rules of conduct binding legal force and effect, prescribed, recognized and enforced by controlling authority. In the United States of America (USA) the word law refers to any rule that if broken subjects a party to criminal punishment or civil liability. Basically all the laws in the United States are made by federal, state, and local legislatures, judges, the president, state governors and administrative agencies. To the people (USA) law is a mosaic of statutes, treaties, case law, administrative agency regulations, executive orders, and local laws. Law can be bewildering because the laws of the various jurisdictions, federal, state and local are sometimes in conflict. More so, law is not static. New laws are regularly introduced, old laws are replaced and existing laws are modified, therefore to be precise the definition of a particular law may be different in the future from what is now at hand or what we have presently.
Power
The concept of power: Power
is usually synonymous with wealth, quite obviously because money and its use to
gain social prominence can be used to bribe, cajole, support or block various
forces in your own interest. The concept of power is also closely connected to
that of realism. Since power provides a sense of security in holding with the
logic that nobody can/will hurt/influence you when you have the ability to
hurt/influence them. Therefore, each party should try to maximize and
consolidate its power. Example: mutual nuclear deterrence – The power of a nuclear weapon gives the state that
possesses it a sense of security, because now, other states (nuclear or
otherwise) will think twice before attacking.
Power is always constant and
dynamic. Power should be used legitimately on citizens who in absolute trust,
yielded their votes, support, time, energy, and life to queue in other to elect
their leaders. It should not be incessantly used to domineer. And any attempt
to do this could be termed ‘criminal and betrayal trust’. The essence of true
power is to serve the people and not to severe the people’s lives. It is to
care for the people and not to crush them. So, any leader be it a political,
social, economical, traditional, etc., who uses power in direct opposite to the
principle of the rule of law, only proves himself to be immature and incapable
to lead. What the people need is not totalitarianism but tolerance, democracy
and not dominancy, fairness and not fascism, directorship and not dictatorship.
Soft power:
is a creepy concept. It works like this: if I can convince you to do what I
can, then you will do it willingly, and will probably advocate for it, adding
to the number of people who willingly do what I want, and then I’ll
have an army of brainwashed minions working for my cause.
Soft power rests on the ability to
shape the preferences of others. In the business world, smart executives know
that leadership is not just a matter of issuing commands, but also involves
leading by example and attracting others to do what you want. Similarly,
contemporary practices of community-based policing rely on making the police
sufficiently friendly and attractive that a community wants to help them
achieve shared objectives. – Joseph S. Nye Jr.
Hard power: is much more mundane: the use of economic and military
might to enforce one’s will on another. This is pretty much in line with most
wars, invasions, sanctions, etc. that we read about in the newspapers.
Nature of Power:
From the definitions of power noted
above we can get certain features and the first such feature is it is used in
relational sense. When there is only one actor or element the issue of power
does not arise. It is because power implies ability to influence or control
others or to get things done by others. Naturally power relates to the
relationship or interaction between two or among more than two elements or
actors. So power is always viewed in the background of relationship.
In the second place, “power is
disaggregated and non-cumulative it is shared and bartered by numerous groups
spread throughout society and representing diverse interests”. In any pluralist
society there are numerous groups and they all compete among themselves at
various levels to capture political power or to influence the agencies who exercise
their influence.
Hence it is observed that power is
not concentrated at any particular centre. Again, all the centres of power do
claim to have equal or almost equal amount of power. In other words, there is
an unequal distribution of power like an unequal distribution of wealth.
Thirdly, in a class-society there
are diverse interests and each power centre represents a particular interest.
This point may further be explained. In any capitalist society there are
several classes, both major and minor, and each class strives for the
realisation of its own interests which are generally economic.
But there may be political
interests. However, the conflicts among the classes sometimes lead to the other
conflicts and this is the general characteristic of capitalist society. But the
advocates of the capitalist system argue that this conflict does not create an
atmosphere of class struggle. There are processes of peaceful resolution of all
conflicts. At least Talcott Parsons and many sociologists think so. According
to these persons the capitalist system is so structured that the conflicts do
not create any impasse.
Fourthly, Maclver is of the opinion
that power is a conditional concept. Power, Maclver says, is an ability to
command service from others. But this ability, he continues, depends in some
measure upon certain conditions and if the conditions are not fulfilled
properly power cannot function. Power is not something which is permanently
fixed. It is subject to change and it has source.
What
is Science? What Makes Political Science a Science?
Pure
science is concerned with obtaining accurate knowledge about the structure and
behaviour of the physical universe. It deals with universal and with rational
analysis of known facts. It is fact seeking as well as fact-using. The ultimate
goal of a science is the classification of facts, and on the basis of such
classification, the formulation of a body of general rules and logically
consistent and universally valid statement about the universe. Science has been
described as an “adventure of the human spirit”. The scientific method entails
vigorous procedures starting from selection of problems to be solved or
analysed, followed by formulation of hypothesis, gathering of data and testing
of hypothesis, and finally, the use of findings to refute, modify or support
existing theories. To evaluate the findings of their own studies and of others,
scientists employ a number of knowledge, to be scientific it must be
characterized by verifiability; it must be systematic and must, have general
applicability.
A
proposition is said to be verified when it has been checked or tested by many specialists in the relevant field of
study and when they all agree that other scientists and the general public can
believe it to be true. However, there are no certainties in anything but
probabilities. The probability that some propositions will hold true, is so
great that they can be treated as certainties, but in the social sciences, this
is not the case. If scientific knowledge is to be verifiable, science must be
empirical, that is, scientific statements must be descriptive of the empirical
world. Similarly, if scientific knowledge is to be verifiable, the desire for
reliability and, ultimately, for verifiability has been the chief factor
leading to the adoption of quantitative methods.
Knowledge
is said to be systematic when it is organized into an intelligible pattern, or
structure, with significant relationships made clear. To achieve a system,
scientists seek out similarities and differences putting things together. While
looking for similarities and
Differences, scientists also look for relationship, whether correlations or causal relations. Concern for system means that scientists want to proceed from particular towards general facts, from knowledge of isolated facts towards knowledge of connections between facts. Thus, “the ideal of science is to achieve a systematic inter-connection of facts”.
The
Meaning of Generality or Universality
The knowledge provided by a telephone directory anywhere in the world is verifiable, and it is presented in an orderly and systematic way. However, it lacks generality or universality in the sense that a New York Telephone Directory is useless in the City of Lagos. The object in science is to develop generalizations so that explanation and prediction can occur to the maximum possible extent. Scientific knowledge on any subject, designed to facilitate explanation and prediction can be thought of as a pyramid rising from a base of specific bits of data up through more general facts to propositions, laws, and theories. Turning to the second part of our questions: Is political science really scientific. Political science may be defined as the study of politics using some scientific tools.
However, political scientists do not agree on the appropriate categories for classifying the phenomena of politics. This disagreement reflects the difficulty of observing and the frequent impossibility of quantifying the variables that political scientists identify. Finally, because political scientists deal with large numbers of people in an uncontrolled setting where each individual has many behavioural options open to him, it is near impossible to make generalization on observed facts. The most crucial fact is how one defines, much less measure, political power and influence the very substance of the political process. Our assessment of political power will be highlighted when we examine power, authority and influence in another unit.
The concept of a
Nation
A Nation is a cultural entity that binds people together on the basis of culturally homogenous ties – common or related blood, a common language, a common historical tradition, common customs and habits (Rodee et al, 1976).
A nation is thus an exclusive group, and its
essential features include: a homogenous cultural unit; specific and shared
identity among members; deep attachment to a specific territory – the earthly
home; membership is limited by ties of blood, intermarriage, kinship and common
descent; members have a shared understanding of who they are, how they
originated and have developed over time, as well as collective belonging
(Parekin, cited by Nna, 2005).
It is clear that individuals are the units of
integration, and members of a nation are integrated as they share a common
identity. Thus, the term national integration is not applicable to a single
nation, but involves two or more nations.
A state
is a political entity that is in many cases made of more than one nationality
group. Thus, for example Nigeria is made of about 250 ethnic groups (Enegwea
& Umoden, 1993, Coleman, 1986).
Characteristics of a nation
i. National identity
ii. Common culture
iii. Single government
v. Religion,
vi. Common or linking
history
vii. Language or
ethnicity
Legitimacy
In political Science, legitimacy is the
right and acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or a régime. Whereas "authority" denotes a specific position
in an established government, the term "legitimacy" denotes a system of
government wherein "government" denotes "sphere of influence".
An authority viewed as legitimate often has the right and justification to
exercise power. Political legitimacy is considered a basic condition for
governing, without which a government will suffer legislative deadlock(s) and
collapse. In political systems where this is not the case, unpopular régimes
survive because they are considered legitimate by a small, influential élite. Dahl, 1971) In Chinese political philosophy, since the historical
period of the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256
BC), the political legitimacy of a ruler and government was derived from
the Mandate of Heaven,
and unjust rulers who lost said mandate therefore lost the right to rule the
people.
·
Traditional legitimacy derives from
societal custom and habit that emphasize the history of the authority of tradition. Traditionalists understand this form of rule as
historically accepted, hence its continuity, because it is the way society has
always been. Therefore, the institutions of traditional government usually are
historically continuous, as in monarchy and tribalism.
·
Charismatic legitimacy derives
from the ideas and personal charisma of the leader, a person whose authoritative personal
charms and psychologically dominates the people of the
society to agreement with the government's régime and rule. A charismatic
government usually features weak political and administrative institutions,
because they derive authority from the persona of the leader, and usually
disappear without the leader in power. However, if the charismatic leader has a
successor, a government derived from charismatic legitimacy might continue.
· Rational-legal legitimacy derives from a system of institutional procedure, wherein government institutions establish and enforce law and order in the public interest. Therefore, it is through public trust that the government will abide the law that confers rational-legal legitimacy.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty is understood in jurisprudence (a system of law or a body of laws applied in a particular country or a state) as the full right and power of a governing body to govern itself without any interference from outside sources or bodies. In political theory, sovereignty is a substantive term designating supreme authority over some polity “sovereignty (politics)” encyclopedia Britannica.
Derived from Latin through French souveraineté, its attainment and retention, in both Chinese and Western (Bateman, 2011) culture, has traditionally been associated with certain moral imperatives upon any claimant.
The
current notion of state
sovereignty contains four aspects
consisting:
Territory,
Population,
Authority and
Recognition
(TPAR) (Biersteker, Thomas; Weber,
Cynthia 1996) According to Stephen D. Krasner,
the term could also be understood in four different ways:
·
domestic sovereignty – actual
control over a state exercised by an authority organized within the state ( Krasner, 2001)
·
interdependence sovereignty – actual
control of movement across state's borders, assuming the borders exist (( Krasner, 2001) )
·
international legal sovereignty –
formal recognition by other sovereign states ( Krasner, 2001)
·
Westphalian sovereignty – lack of other authority over state other than the
domestic authority (examples of such other authorities could be a non-domestic
church, a non-domestic political organization, or any other external agent) ( Krasner, 2001)
Often,
these four aspects all appear together, but this is not necessarily the case –
they are not affected by one another, and there are historical examples of
states that were non-sovereign in one aspect while at the same time being sovereign
in another of these aspects. According to Immanuel Wallerstein, another fundamental feature of sovereignty is that it is a
claim that must be recognized by others if it is to have any meaning:
"Sovereignty is more than anything else a matter of legitimacy [...that]
requires reciprocal recognition. Sovereignty is a hypothetical trade, in which
two potentially conflicting sides, respecting de facto realities of power,
exchange such recognitions as their least costly strategy” (wallerstein 2004).
Sovereignty can be defined as an
absolute, supreme and ultimate dominion and authority of a political state
subject to no higher power, expressed within its territory in full self
government and in complete freedom from any outside influence. In order words,
sovereignty is a total and control of a property by an individual or other
entity. Sovereignty is a Supreme or authority.
The authority of a state to govern
itself or another state is known as national sovereignty.
it can also be defined as a self governing state.
Democracy
U.S. president Abraham
Lincoln (1809-1865) defined democracy as:
«Government
of the people, by the people, for the people»
Democracy is by far the most challenging form of government - both for politicians and for the people. The term democracy comes from the Greek language and means "rule by the (simple) people". The so-called "democracies" in classical antiquity (Athens and Rome) represent precursors of modern democracies. Like modern democracy, they were created as a reaction to a concentration and abuse of power by the rulers. Yet the theory of modern democracy was not formulated until the Age of Enlightment (17th/18th centuries), when philosophers defined the essential elements of democracy: separation of powers, basic civil rights / human rights, religious liberty and separation of church and state
Democracy -
classical definitions
Often
democracy is defined opposite to other types of government:
Monarchy
is the government by single ruler known as King/Queen emperor
Aristocracy
is the government by the noblemen as a result of inheritance (hereditary)
Oligarchy
is the government by few persons
Theocracy
is the government by God in order words government by the religious people or
leaders
Dictatorship
is the government by people that have acquired power by force (military ruler
ship or military dictatorship, or military government) today, the majority of
democratic countries in the world are republics, i.e. officials are
elected. Some well-established democratic countries in Europe, however, (the
United Kingdom, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg and the Scandinavian
countries) are constitutional monarchies, i.e. a king or queen is head
of state while the constitution guarantees nevertheless all basic rights as in
any democratic republic and sets clear limits to duties and competences of the
monarch. Such a king can be regarded as a stabilizing factor
rather than as a danger for a democracy. Therefore the classical definition of
democracy is little helpful - at least concerning monarchy.
Democracy
- Modern Definition
Because the definition of the term
democracy opposite to monarchy and aristocracy rather
creates confusion with regard to constitutional monarchies instead
of establishing clarity, it is more appropriate to define democracy opposite
to authoritarian and totalitarian regimes:
Totalitarian
regime:
Government by a little group of leaders on the basis of an ideology
that claims general validity for all aspects of life and usually attempts to
replace religion. The regime does not tolerate any deviation from its state
ideology. Regime opponents are persecuted, tortured, detained in concentration
camps and members of ethnic minorities are killed in mass executions
(genocide).
Historic examples of totalitarian regimes include: National Socialism
(Germany under Hitler, 1933-1945) and Stalinism.
Example: Islamic Republic of Iran.
Democracy -
Key Elements
In order to deserve the label modern
democracy, a country needs to fulfill some basic requirements - and they
need not only be written down in it's constitution but must be kept up in
everyday life by politicians and authorities:
- Guarantee of basic Human Rights to
every individual person vis-à-vis the state and its authorities as well as
vis-à-vis any social groups (especially religious institutions) and
vis-à-vis other persons.
- Separation
of Powers between the institutions
of the state:
Government [Executive Power],
Parliament [Legislative Power] and
Courts of Law [Judicative Power] - Freedom of opinion,
speech, press and mass media
- Religious liberty
- General and equal right to vote (one person, one vote)
Good
Governance (focus on public interest and
absence of corruption).
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