Lesson Note on POL 322 NCE 300L 2nd Sem. 2025

 

POL 322 International Organizations (2 Credits) C  

 

This course will examine the, concept of international organization and its characteristics; features, the structure, functions and problems of the various international organizations listed below

 

i.                    League of Nations

ii.                  The United Nations Organizations formerly called (U. N.O.) presently called United Nations (UN)

iii.                Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

 

iv.                European Union (EU)

v.                  New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)

vi.                North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

vii.              Organization of Petroleum Exporting Country (OPEC).

viii.            African Union ( formerly called Organization of African Unity (OAU)  presently called (AU)

ix.                The commonwealth of Nations

 

 

International Organizations

 

International organisations are entities established by formal political agreements between their members that have the status of international treaties; their existence is recognised by law in their member countries; they are not treated as resident institutional units of the countries in which they are located.

International organization is the process by which states establish and develop formal, continuing institutional structures for the conduct of certain aspects of their relationships with each other. It represents a reaction to the extreme decentralization of the traditional system of international relations and an effort by statesmen to adapt the mechanics of that system to the requirements posed by the constantly increasing complexity of the interdependence of states. Particular international organizations may be regarded as manifestations of the organizing process on the international level.

 

An international governmental organisation (IGO), also referred to as an intergovernmental organisation, is an organisation with a membership of only states. The organisation is usually founded upon a treaty, or a multilateral agreement, and consists of more than two states. Member states determine the way in which the organisation is run, vote within the organisation and provide its funding.

The history of international organization

The process of international organization had its origins in the nineteenth century, largely in Europe. Innovations associated with the rise of industrialism and the introduction of new methods of transport and communication stimulated the creation of special-purpose agencies, usually called public international unions, designed to facilitate the collaboration of governments in dealing with economic, social, and technical problems. Notable among these were the International Telegraphic Union (1865) and the Universal Postal Union (1874), which survived to become specialized agencies of the United Nations system (the former under the title International Telecommunication Union) after World War II. In the political field, an effort to institutionalize the dominant role of the great powers of Europe was undertaken at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

While the resultant Concert of Europe did not assume the character of a standing political organization, the same pattern functioned until World War I as the framework for a system of occasional great-power conferences which lent some substance to the idea that the European family of states constituted an organized entity. This concept was broadened by the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907, which admitted small states as well as great powers, and extra-European as well as European states, to participation in collective political deliberations. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the establishment of the Pan American Union and the initiation of a series of inter-American conferences reinforced the Monroe Doctrine and Simón Bolívar’s pronouncements by giving institutional expression to the idea that the states of the Western Hemisphere constituted a distinct subgroup within the larger multi-state system.

These nineteenth-century beginnings provided, in large measure, the basis for the phenomenal development of international organization since World War I. Certain distinctions which emerged during this period between political and nonpolitical agencies, between the status of great powers and that of small states, between regional and geographically undefined organizations were to prove significant in the later course of international organization. Basic patterns of institutional structure and procedure were evolved. The trend toward broadening the conception of international organization to include entities beyond the confines of the European state system was initiated. Most importantly, the dual motivations of international institution building (a) the urge to promote coordinated responses by states to the problems of peaceful intercourse in an era of growing economic, social, and technical interdependence, and(b)the recognition of the necessity for moderating conflict in the political and military spheres became operative in this period.

The conception of international relations underlying international organization is frequently described as idealistic, in the sense that it minimizes the element of conflict and emphasizes the potentialities of harmony and cooperation in the relationships of states. International organizations are characterized, by supporters and critics alike, as arrangements for cooperation among states. Most accurately, international organization can be said to rest upon a dualistic conception of international relations, one which acknowledges both conflictual and cooperative relationships as basic features of the multistate system. In principle, international organization represents an attempt to minimize conflict and maximize collaboration among participating states, treating conflict as an evil to be controlled and cooperation as a good to be promoted. In these terms, international organization both denies the inevitability of war and other manifestations of hostility among nations and expresses a commitment to the harmonization of international relations.

In fact, a more sophisticated analysis of international organization reveals a much more complex approach to the conflictual and cooperative aspects of international affairs than that described above. Some international agencies are primarily concerned with problems of conflict, while others emphasize the promotion of collaboration: within the United Nations, for instance, the Security Council is illustrative of the former type and the Economic and Social Council of the latter. Moreover, conflicting interests of states intrude upon programs of cooperation, making it necessary for cooperation-oriented agencies to deal with problems of conflict, and the common interests of states provide the means by which conflict-oriented agencies undertake to cope with tendencies toward international disorder. Thus, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a regional agency inspired by the East–West conflict after World War II, but it relies upon cooperation among its members to enable it to meet the dangers posed by that conflict. Similarly, the concept of collective security envisages cooperative action by most members of a general international organization as the essential means for deterring or defeating aggression.

The concept of International Relation

International relations are an academic discipline that focuses on the study of the interaction of the actors in international politics, including states and non-state actors, such as the United Nations (UN), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and Amnesty International. One of the key features of the international system is that it is a state of anarchy - each state in the system is sovereign and does not have to answer to a higher authority.

International relations have to do with the study of such things as foreign policy, international conflict and negotiation, war, nuclear proliferation, terrorism, international trade and economics, and international development, among other subjects. International relations' is a broad scope that requires an interdisciplinary approach, drawing upon the fields of economics, law, political science, sociology, game theory, and also psychology.

Sovereignty is one of the most important and popular concepts in contemporary international relations. The concept has been subjected to a lot of interpretations (misinterpretations) a good example is that some of the ills in the contemporary international system both at the domestic and interstate levels are blamed on sovereignty. Sovereignty as a concept in both domestic and international politics dates back several centuries. The genesis of it could be traced to the 16th century Frenchman philosopher Jean Bodin, who in 1576 published the ground-breaking treatise that was known as the six Books. Bodin tried to make an input in what is systematic presentation of what sovereignty means in both national and external politics. The two broad notions of sovereignty were distinguished by Bodin as domestic and external sovereignty which has been upheld as constant till date.

 

 

 

Domestic or Internal Sovereignty

Domestic Sovereignty according to Bodin in Ojo and Amadu (2002 p29) simply means “the absolute authority and perpetual power of a state over its citizens and subjects unrestrained by law”. This definition was given at the time as an insight into the domestic politics of Bodins time and at that time state has unlimited coercive authority over its citizens and subjects. That time was also when the Europe feudal monarchs legitimized absolute powers only enjoyed by them. The Pope as at that time was both the spiritual as well as temporal leader of the Holy Roman Empire. Prior to its logical meaning as at that time Bodin’s notion of sovereignty made no room for the right of the citizens to challenge their rulers. Quite well indeed, the citizens were mere objects and not subjects of their leaders who were answerable only to God, the Supreme Being for their actions. In a nutshell Bodin’s definition gave legitimacy to atrocities of 16 century monarchs against their subjects (Ojo and Amadu, 2002).

Domestic sovereignty according to Fawcett, it is a mere “power and authority of a state over all persons, things and territory within its reach”.

External sovereignty

This is used synonymously with independence, which is only a status symbol in international politics. External sovereignty in this context is all about “independence” as a status which states used to gain membership in international intergovernmental organizations such as Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS), European Union (EU), United Nations (UN) etc., for instance, Gambia that are small in terms of population of less than half a million, and the United States of America (USA) that are large in population that is close to three hundred million people, are considered to be equal for the purpose of external sovereignty since they are both independent state the idea is in theory not bound by any higher constitutional arrangements outside their own territories. At the United Nations General Assembly, the USA and the Gambia have one equal vote each. This equality is theoretical in the sense that when it comes in taking decision the developing countries are silenced by the developed countries.

It is a belief that external sovereignty does not mean that a state is free to do what it likes in the international system, or within its territory

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

In fact, rather than referring to the international system as a present-day world government, it is more common to refer to international law as representing only the potential roots of a possible future world government. The modern rise of international law can be traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, which ended the Thirty Years’ War in part by recognizing the right of territorial sovereignty in interstate affairs. What came to be known as the Westphalian order is defined by two principles: state territoriality—the international recognition of well-defined borders—and the right to non-intervention in domestic affairs. The Westphalian order placed the independent nation-state at the center of the international system at the expense of larger supranational authorities such as the Holy Roman Empire or the Roman Catholic Church. Nonetheless, international law constituted only a minimal system of coexistence, and military force remained the primary mechanism for the settlement of conflict. The early nineteenth century witnessed the formation of the Concert of Europe—a balance of power arrangement with the goal of establishing security on the continent in the wake of the Napoleonic wars. Yet it was not until the end of World War I (1914–1918) and the founding of the League of Nations that the first systemic international organization was formed with the purpose of avoiding war altogether. And it was not until the close of World War II (1939–1945) that the formation of the United Nations, and the establishment of the International Military Tribunal for the Punishment of War Criminals, made aggressive war an internationally recognized crime.

After World War II, international law entered a new stage represented by the ban on the use of force and the elevation of human rights to the status of international law through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Historically, the subjects of international law had always been groups or collective actors, principally states. But with the rise of human rights and war crimes legislation more and more international law came to refer directly to the individual person, independent of particular group membership. With this development some understand international law to be following a trajectory that points away from the statist Westphalian model of international relations toward a universalist, cosmopolitan model of world government.

Most international law, however, remained state- or group-based well into the start of the twenty-first century. Many late-twentieth century developments do, however, point toward the coexistence of an alternative cosmopolitan model. For example, the International Criminal Court (ICC) points toward the development of an international system of justice in which individuals could claim to be citizens of the world subject to a single law executed by a single world government. Thus, one might imagine a future world government as taking form around such a notion of universal citizenship. The ICC was founded in 1998 to prosecute perpetrators of the most heinous crimes recognized by the entire international community, including “genocide” and “crimes against humanity.” However, important obstacles to its success remain: Not all countries immediately recognized its authority, subsequently undermining its claim to universality; most important, the United States disputed its mandate, claimed special exemption from its jurisdiction, and pressured other countries—especially its aid recipients—to do the same. Similarly, other trends suggest that the decentralized structure of the international system could just as easily develop away from the consolidation of a coherent world government. For example, in the early years of the twenty-first century, international regulation was increasingly the product of private-public partnerships, resulting in a pluralization of rule-making structures rather than their institutional concentration.

Historical overview of International Organization (The League of Nations)

The League of Nations was the first permanent early international Organization that lasted for some years. The first meeting of the League of Nations was held in 1920 at Geneva in Switzerland. It was created by the Versailles and other peace treaties ending World War I. The upbraided nationalism that had inflamed Europe in the early 20th century was widely seen as a major cause of World War I. The horrendous losses in the War convinced many Europeans that there must never be another war.

 A League of Nations proposed by the 28th US president (1856 - 1924) Woodrow Wilson who served in office from 1913 to 1921 and lead America through World War 1(1914 - 1918) was seen as a way of preventing war in the future through a system of collective security. The League was a culmination of other political thinkers who had late the intellectual background; men like the duke de Sully and Immanuel Kant. The League failed in the face of Fascism (a RIGHT-WING political system in which people’s lives were completely controlled by the state and no political opposition is allowed to air their views on it was used in Germany and Italy in the 1930s and 40s). Its successor was the United Nations (UN)

Original Members of the League of Nations - January 10, 1920 Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, el Salvador, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Netherlands, New Zealand Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Persia, Peru Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, South Africa, United Kingdom, Uruguay Venezuela, Yugoslavia (40 members).

 

 

Types of International Organizations

1. Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) was created by treaties between states whereas their Membership consists of sovereign states. Examples: United Nations, European Union, African Union, OPEC, ECOWAS etc.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) they are Independent of governments, and their Membership consists of individuals or organizations, some examples are: Red Cross, Amnesty International, Greenpeace etc.

We also have Supranational Organizations that have authority above national governments such organizations are the: European Union, Commonwealth of Nations International Criminal Court of Justice (ICJ) etc.

 

Importance of International Organizations in Global Governance

1.      They help in Promoting Peace and Security: by Preventing and resolving conflicts all over the world. They also are known for Maintaining international peace and security.

2.      Fostering International Cooperation: They are also at encouraging collaboration on global issues thereby facilitating international agreements and treaties among countries.

3.      Providing Humanitarian Aid: this is by Responding to natural disasters and humanitarian crises thereby providing assistance to refugees and displaced persons in a place that there are conflicts. For instance in Nigeria Bokoharam has displaced so many people making them refugees in their own country such people are provided with humanitarian aids from the international organizations.

4.      Promoting Sustainable Development: one good thing about international organizations was that they are good at addressing global challenges like climate change and poverty by supporting economic and social development more especially in the underdeveloped countries.

5.      Upholding International Law: They also are at home in promoting respect for international law and human rights thereby providing a framework for international justice for peace to reign in the world.

 

THE BENEFITS COUNTRIES DERIVE FROM THEIR MEMBERSHIP OF THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION

 

Why do states want to become or remain members of this august body? What is in it for them? Listed below are some of the benefits nations derive from their membership of the United Nations Organization and why it is on the wish of the nations of the world.

Note, however, that the United Nations will not sit down unconcerned when conflict, famine or any natural calamity erupts in any part of the world because that nation does not belong to the body. They will find a way to help to bring the situation down. For example, Palestine does not have an official membership in the UN but there will be an intervention from the body if any conflict erupts in that region.

 

Ø  Prevention of conflict

One of the major reasons for the establishment of the UN is to ensure the prevention of the eruption of conflicts. The United Nations Charter, which was coming after the failure of the League of Nations to prevent the Secord World War, has a central role of conflict prevention. Though the role of the United Nations in conflict prevention does not usually appear in the front pages of global newspapers, the organization has been effective in preventing many violent conflicts. Various tools are deployed in engaging local, national and international political actors to find peace before they escalate into conflict.

The United Nations, through the Security Council has intervened to prevent conflicts from occurring. Where there is a threat to peace, and the Security Council gets wind of it, it first recommends that parties settle cases by peaceful means. Member-countries benefit from membership of the UN when mediation by the Security Council helps to avert armed conflict in their countries.

 

Peace keeping

In a situation where the Security Council, after trying its best, is unable to prevent the conflict from occurring, they are able to use UN Peace-keeping soldiers to restore peace and keep it from further escalating. The UN has been in Lebanon, Bosnia, Darfur, etc to restore and maintain peace. Member-states benefit from their membership of the UN in times of violent conflicts where both sides of the conflict refuse to see reason. 

Ø  Conflict resolution

Member-states of the United Nations benefit from their membership in the area of conflict resolution. This is able to prevent unnecessary conflicts on the world stage. A very recent case is the near conflict between Ghana and la Cote D’voire when the latter accused the former of exploring for oil in her territorial waters. This matter was taken to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) for redress. Membership of the UN therefore helps member-countries to resolve conflicts in peaceful ways and to avoid unnecessary wars.

Ø  Food aid to affected countries

The United Nations has provided food aid to countries experiencing food shortages. Another benefit of belonging to the world organization is that, during food shortages or severe famine, countries can count on the Food and Agricultural Organization and the World Food Programmes, all of the United Nations to distribute food aid to affected areas. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) was established by the United Nations with the sole mandate of defeating hunger. A membership of the United Nations will ensure that the FAO intervein before countries slip into famine due to conflict and other economic, political or natural factors.

 

Ø  Health benefits through the World Health Organization (WHO)

Another way in which countries benefit from their membership of the UN is the global fight of the international body against diseases, epidemics and pandemics. A very recent fight is the fight against Corona virus, which is still ravaging the world. The World Health Organization, which is an agency within the United Nations has taken a leading role, giving policy adviser and direction to the entire world. Even before the advent of Covid19, the UN has been in a prolong fight against malaria, which is devastating African countries mostly. It has also been instrumental in the fight against ebola in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). In 2019, for example, the UN, in conjunction with other Non-governmental Organizations, contained the spread of ebola in the North Kivu Province of DRC.

Ø  Promotion of human rights

Another benefit of the membership of the United Nations is the promotion and respect for human rights in member-countries. There are universal values such as the right to life, free speech, the right to engage in legitimate business etc which every member of the United Nations is enjoined to adhere to. Any violations of these values by member countries is frowned upon and some members could be sanctioned for breaches. So membership of the UN helps to promote the value for human rights in member countries.

 

Ø  Recognition of statehood

The United Nations Organization, does not have the power to confer statehood on a country. It does not also have the authority to recognize a state or a government. However, one of the ways of receiving recognition from other members of the comity of nations, is to become a member of the United Nations. One of the benefits of a membership of the United Nations is, therefore, to be recognized by other nations of the world.

Ø  Trial of war criminals

Countries which have experienced war, where citizens have suffered atrocities in the hands of their leaders or other political players, have the opportunity of getting people involved in the atrocities tried as war criminals. This is also a benefit of a country belonging to the UN.

Such trials are able to bring closure to those who suffered during violent conflicts. The victims of war are able to talk about the horrible things they saw and experienced. Countries which belong to the United Nations ensure that those who are responsible for atrocities during armed conflicts are made to pay for their deeds. For example, the former Yugoslavia version of the International Criminal Tribunal brought people who were responsible for war crimes during the Balkans conflict to justice. Also, the former President of Liberia was tried by the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) for his alleged support for the activities of two rebel groups in Sierra Leone. The SCSL was established by the government of Sierra Leone and the Unted NAtions Organization. 

 

WEAKNESSES OF THE UNITED NATIONS

1. Tool of big power

2. Domestic Jurisdiction

3. Less representation to Asia and Africa

4. Veto Power

5. Military Alliances

6. Non-sovereign body

7. Lack of permanent Forces

8. Lack of Money

9. Against the principle of Equality

10. No representation to subordinate States

11. Defective Organization

12. Politics of Appointments

13. Lack of Impartiality

14. Charter is too rigid.

 

ACHIEVEMENT OF THE UNITED NATIONS

 

1. Maintenance of world Peace

2. Economic and social Progress

3. Promotion of international Cooperation

4. Disarmament

5. Use of Atomic Energy for peaceful Purposes

6. Universal Declaration of Human Rights

7. Codification and development of international Law

8. Freedom for dependent states

9. Rehabilitation of Refugees

10. To end Apartheid

11. Opposition to colonialism

12. Help for children

13. Development of International trade

14. Use of outer space for human welfare

15. Improvement in the condition of women

16. Efforts to solve world food problem

17. United Nations and the problem of growing world population

18. Establishment of U.N. University

19. United nation and protection of environment

 

The Commonwealth of Nations

The British Commonwealth of Nations was the result of the 1926 Balfour Declaration which stipulated that the relationship between Britain and her Dominions was equal in status. This stipulation was formalized officially in Section 4 of the Statute of Westminster in 1931. It stated: 'No Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the commencement of this Act shall extend, or be deemed to extend, to a Dominion as part of the law of that Dominion, unless it is expressly declared in that Act that that Dominion has requested, and consented to, the enactment thereof.' In section 1, 'Dominions' were specified as: 'the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, the Dominion of New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland'. The main effect of the Statute was the establishment of legislative equality between these dominions and the United Kingdom.

Concerning the status of Great Britain and the Dominions, the Balfour Declaration stipulated: 'They are autonomous communities within the British empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.' The Balfour Declaration was one of the outcomes of the 1926 Imperial Conference in London. Section III concerns the special position of India: 'It will be noted that in the previous paragraphs we have made no mention of India.

Meanwhile, however, in the period between the Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of Westminster of 1931, British-Indian relations worsened, culminating in the failure of the Round Table Conferences (1930-1932). The Indian National Congress fought for Dominion status for India, the Simon Commission was boycotted and Gandhi launched a major civil disobedience movement. The strained Anglo-Indian relationship in this period left India out of the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and without Dominion status.

The London Declaration of 1949 ended the British Commonwealth of Nations. In order to accommodate constitutional changes in India, the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations declared: 'The Governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan and Ceylon, whose countries are united as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations and owe a common allegiance to the Crown, which is also the symbol of their free association, have considered the impending constitutional changes in India.

'The Government of India have informed the other Governments of the Commonwealth of the intention of the Indian people that under the new constitution which is about to be adopted India shall become a sovereign independent republic. The Government of India have however declared and affirmed India's desire to continue her full membership of the Commonwealth of Nations and her acceptance of The King as the symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth. Thus, with the London Declaration, the British Commonwealth of Nations officially ended and became the Commonwealth of Nations.

https://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/british-commonwealth-nations-1931

As the British Empire began its process of decolonization and the creation of independent states from former British colonies, there arose a need for an organization of countries formerly part of the Empire. In 1884, Lord Roseberry, a British politician, described the changing British Empire as a "Commonwealth of Nations."

The British Commonwealth of Nations was founded in 1931 under the Statute of Westminster with five initial members - the United Kingdom, Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, and the Union of South Africa. (Ireland permanently left the Commonwealth in 1949, Newfoundland became part of Canada in 1949, and South Africa left in 1961 due to apartheid but rejoined in 1994 as the Republic of South Africa)

Commonwealth of Nations Rebrand

The Commonwealth was rebranded in 1946, the word "British" was entirely dropped and the organization became known as simply the Commonwealth of Nations. Australia and New Zealand adopted the Statute in 1942 and 1947, respectively. With India's independence in 1947, the new country desired to become a Republic and not to utilize the monarchy as their head of state. The London Declaration of 1949 modified the requirement that members must view the monarchy as their head of state to require that countries recognize the monarchy as simply the leader of the Commonwealth.

With this adjustment, additional countries joined the Commonwealth as they gained independence from the United Kingdom so today there are fifty-four (54) member countries. Of the fifty-four, thirty-three (33) are republics (such as India), five (5) have their own monarchies (such as Brunei Darussalam), and sixteen (16) are a constitutional monarchy with the sovereign of the United Kingdom as their head of state (such as Canada and Australia).

Although membership requires having been a former dependency of the United Kingdom or a dependency of a dependency, former Portuguese colony Mozambique became a member 1995 under special circumstances due to Mozambique's willingness to support the Commonwealth's fight against apartheid in South Africa

Policies

The Secretary-General is elected by the Heads of Government of the membership and can serve two four-year terms. The position of Secretary-General was established in 1965. The Commonwealth Secretariat has its headquarters in London and is composed of 320 staff members from the member countries. The Commonwealth maintains its own flag. The purpose of the voluntary Commonwealth is for international cooperation and to advance economics, social development, and human rights in member countries. Decisions of the various Commonwealth councils are non-binding.

The Commonwealth of Nations supports the Commonwealth Games, which is a sporting event held every four years for member countries. A Commonwealth Day is celebrated on the second Monday in March. Each year carries a different theme but each country can celebrate the day as they choose. The population of the 54 member states exceeds two billion; about 30% of the world population (India is responsible for a majority of the Commonwealth's population). (https://www.thoughtco.com/commonwealth-of-nations-1435408)

It is a voluntary association of 54 independent and equal countries. Members government share goals like development, democracy and peace. It is home to 2.4 billion people, and includes both advanced economies and developing countries. 32 of our members are small states, including many island nations. The Commonwealth's roots go back to the British Empire. But today any country can join the modern Commonwealth. The last country to join the Commonwealth was Rwanda in 2009.

The early Commonwealth

Over time different countries of the British Empire gained different levels of freedom from Britain. Semi-independent countries were called Dominions. Leaders of the Dominions attended conferences with Britain from 1887. The 1926 Imperial Conference was attended by the leaders of Australia, Canada, India, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, New Zealand and South Africa. At the 1926 conference Britain and the Dominions agreed that they were all equal members of a community within the British Empire. They all owed allegiance to the British king or queen, but the United Kingdom did not rule over them. This community was called the British Commonwealth of Nations or just the Commonwealth.

Birth of the modern Commonwealth

The Dominions and other territories of the British Empire gradually became fully independent of the United Kingdom. India became independent in 1947. India wanted to become a republic which didn't owe allegiance to the British king or queen, but it also wanted to stay a member of the Commonwealth. At a Commonwealth Prime Ministers meeting in London in 1949, the London Declaration said that republics and other countries could be part of the Commonwealth. The modern Commonwealth of Nations was born. King George VI was the first Head of the Commonwealth, and Queen Elizabeth II became Head when he died. But the British king or queen is not automatically Head of the Commonwealth. Commonwealth member countries choose who becomes Head of the Commonwealth.

Duties of Commonwealth Association

The Commonwealth is an association of 54 countries working towards shared goals of prosperity, democracy and peace. The Commonwealth Secretariat is the intergovernmental organisation which co-ordinates and carries out much of the Commonwealth's work, supported by a network of more than 80 organisations.

The Secretariat works all over the Commonwealth, to:

i.            protect the environment and encourage sustainable use of natural resources on land and sea

ii.            boost trade and the economy

iii.            support democracy, government and the rule of law

iv.            develop society and young people, including gender equality, education, health and sport

v.            support small states, helping them tackle the particular challenges they face.

The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation (CFTC) is the main way that the Commonwealth Secretariat provides technical help to Commonwealth countries. We make sure the help we offer is driven by what countries tell us they need.

 

The modern Commonwealth

Since 1949 independent countries from Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and the Pacific have joined the Commonwealth. Membership are based on free and equal voluntary co-operation. The last 2 countries to join the Commonwealth - Rwanda and Mozambique - have no historical ties to the British Empire. The Commonwealth Secretariat was created in 1965 as a central intergovernmental organisation to manage the Commonwealth's work.

Commonwealth Charter

The Commonwealth Charter is a document of the values and aspirations which unite the Commonwealth. It expresses the commitment of member states to the development of free and democratic societies and the promotion of peace and prosperity to improve the lives of all the people of the Commonwealth. The Charter also acknowledges the role of civil society in supporting the goals and values of the Commonwealth.

 

 

AFRICAN UNION (AU)

The African Union (AU) is a continental body consisting of the 55 member states that make up the countries of the African Continent. It was officially launched in 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU, 1963-1999).

 History:

In May 1963, 32 Heads of independent African States met in Addis Ababa Ethiopia to sign the Charter creating Africa’s first post-independence continental institution, The Organization of African Unity (OAU). The OAU was the manifestation of the pan-African vision for an Africa that was united, free and in control of its own destiny and this was solemnized in the OAU Charter in which the founding fathers recognized that freedom, equality, justice and dignity were essential objectives for the achievement of the legitimate aspirations of the African peoples and that there was a need to promote understanding among Africa’s peoples and foster cooperation among African states in response to the aspirations of Africans for brother-hood and solidarity, in a larger unity transcending ethnic and national Differences. The guiding philosophy was that of Pan-Africanism which centered on African socialism and promoted African unity, the communal characteristic and practices of African communities, and a drive to embrace Africa’s culture and common heritage

 

The main objectives of the OAU were to rid the continent of the remaining vestiges of colonization and apartheid; to promote unity and solidarity amongst African States; to coordinate and intensify cooperation for development; to safeguard the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Member States and to promote international cooperation.

 Purpose of the Organization namely:

i.            To promote the unity and solidarity of the African States;

ii.            To coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for the peoples of Africa;

iii.            To defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity and independence;

iv.            To eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa; and

v.            To promote international cooperation, having due regard to the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Through the OAU Coordinating Committee for the Liberation of Africa, the Continent worked and spoke as one with undivided determination in forging an international consensus in support of the liberation struggle and the fight against apartheid. The OAU had provided an effective forum that enabled all Member States to adopt coordinated positions on matters of common concern to the continent in international fora and defend the interests of Africa effectively. On 9.9.1999, the Heads of State and Government of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) issued the Site Declaration calling for the establishment of an African Union, with a view, to accelerating the process of integration in the continent to enable Africa to play its rightful role in the global economy while addressing multifaceted social, economic and political problems compounded as they were by certain negative aspects of globalisation.

Purpose of the European Union

The European Union was created to bind the nations of Europe closer together for the economic, social, and security welfare of all. It is one of several efforts after World War II to bind together the nations of Europe into a single entity.

 Original Member of The European Union

The original members of the European Union were the nations of Western Europe. In the 21st century, the EU has expand membership to the Eastern European nations that emerged after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Its current member nations include Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia.

Reasons for the creation of European Union

The overarching purpose of the European Union, in the years after World War II, was to put an end to the devastating wars that had wracked Europe for centuries. At the same time, it became increasingly clear that a united Europe would have far greater economic and political power than the individual nations in the post-world war.

THE NEW PARTNERSHIP FOR AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD)

The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) is a socio-economic flagship Programme of the African Union (AU). NEPAD’s four primary objectives are to eradicate poverty, promote sustainable growth and development, integrate Africa in the world economy and accelerate the empowerment of women.

NEPAD facilitates and coordinates the development of continent-wide programmes and projects, mobilises resources and engages the global community, Regional Economic Communities (RECs) and member states in the implementation of these programmes and projects. The NEPAD Agency replaced the NEPAD Secretariat in 2010 which had coordinated the implementation of NEPAD programmes and projects since 2001.

The strategic direction of the NEPAD Agency is divided into six themes:

• Agriculture and Food Security
• Climate Change and Natural Resource Management
• Regional Integration and Infrastructure
• Human Development
• Economic and Corporate Governance
• Cross-Cutting Issues – Gender, ICT, Capacity Development and Communications

 The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) was adopted by African Heads of State and Government of the OAU in 2001 and was ratified by the African Union (AU) in 2002 to address Africa’s development problems within a new paradigm. NEPAD’s main objectives are to reduce poverty, put Africa on a sustainable development path, halt the marginalization of Africa, and empower women.

In 2008, Heads of State and Government, Ministers and representatives of Member States adopted a political declaration to address “Africa’s development needs: state of implementation of various commitments, challenges and the way forward” (General Assembly resolution 63/1). The declaration reaffirmed the commitment of Member States to addressing the development needs of Africa and requested the Secretary-General to submit to the General Assembly, at its sixtyfourth session, a comprehensive report with recommendations on the implementation of these commitments with a view to formulating a mechanism to review the full and timely implementation of all commitments related to Africa’s development.

The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), an African Union strategic framework for pan-African socio-economic development addresses critical challenges facing the continent: poverty, development and Africa’s marginalization internationally and provides unique opportunities for African countries to take full control of their development agenda, to work more closely together, and to cooperate more effectively with international partners;

NEPAD Manages a number of programmes and projects in six theme areas. These themes are:

·         Agriculture and Food Security

·         Climate Change and Natural Resource Management

·         Regional Integration and Infrastructure

·         Human Development

·         Economic and Corporate Governance

·         Cross-cutting Issues, including Gender, Capacity Development and ICT

https://www.nepad.org/publication/nepad-brief

 

How the OPEC Influences Oil Prices

Collectively, OPEC is the largest producer and exporter of crude oil and petroleum products in the world. Roughly 40% of the world's oil production and 60% of the world's petroleum market come from the group's member countries and they accounted for more than 80% of the world's proven oil reserves in 2021.14

Having said this, it's no surprise that any moves the group makes have a big impact on global energy prices. Oil prices can drop significantly if they decide to supply more oil to the market. On the other hand, if OPEC member countries decide to cut production and curb supplies, prices are highly likely to shoot up.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the OPEC

There are several advantages of having a cartel like OPEC operating in the crude oil industry. First, it promotes cooperation among member nations, helping them alleviate some degree of political hostilities. And because the organization's main goal is to stabilize oil production and prices, it is able to exert some influence over production from other nations.

Disadvantages

OPEC’s influence on the market has been widely criticized. Because its member countries hold the vast majority of crude oil reserves, the organization has considerable power in these markets.13 As a cartel, OPEC members have a strong incentive to keep oil prices as high as possible while maintaining their shares of the global market.

Pros

·         Promotes cooperation among member nations

·         Exerts influence over production from other nations

Cons

·         Has considerable power

·         Incentivized to keep oil prices high to maintain global market share

 

 

OPEC Challenges and Responses

Oil prices and OPEC's role in the international petroleum market are subject to a number of different factors. The advent of new technology, especially fracking in the United States, has had a major effect on worldwide oil prices and has lessened OPEC’s influence on the markets. As a result, worldwide oil production increased and prices dropped significantly, leaving OPEC in a delicate position.

OPEC decided to maintain high production levels and consequently low prices as of mid-2016, in an attempt to push higher-cost producers out of the market and regain market share. However, starting in January 2019, OPEC reduced output by 1.2 million barrels a day for six months due to a concern that an economic slowdown would create a supply glut, extending the agreement for an additional nine months in July 2019.

Demand for oil dropped during the global crisis, which began in 2020. Producers had an overabundance in supply with no place to store it, as the world experienced lockdowns cutting down demand. This, along with a price war between Russia and Saudi Arabia, led to a drop in oil prices. As a result, the organization decided to cut production by 9.7 million barrels per day between May and July 2020. Oil prices continued to experience volatility, leading OPEC to adjust production levels to 7.2 million barrels per day as of January 2021.

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. "The 12th OPEC and Non-OPEC Ministerial Meeting Concludes."

OPEC faces considerable challenges from innovation and new, green technology. High oil prices are causing some oil-importing countries to look to unconventional—and cleaner—sources of energy. These alternatives, such as shale production as an alternative energy source, and hybrid and electric cars that reduce the dependence on petroleum products, continue to put pressure on the organization.

OPEC

OPEC is a group that comprises the 13 member countries of OPEC and other oil-producing countries. These countries include: Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Brunei, Equatorial Guinea, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mexico, Malaysia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Oman. This group was established in 2016 at a time when the economy was seeing significantly low oil prices. The purpose was to help bring stability to the global market. Together, OPEC nations boast 90% of the world's oil reserves.

The Main Goals of OPEC

OPEC's main goal is to maintain oil prices at a profitable level for its members while keeping the market as free as possible from restrictions. The organization ensures its members receive a steady stream of income from an uninterrupted supply of oil.

Member Countries in OPEC

OPEC is made up of 13 member nations. The five founding members are Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela, while the other full members include Algeria, Angola, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Libya, Nigeria, and the United Arab Emirates.

U.S. not Part of OPEC and Countries that Left

The United States is not part of OPEC. This means that the country has control over its own production and supply without any interference from the organization. Countries that left OPEC include Ecuador, which withdrew from the organization in 2020, Qatar, which terminated its membership in 2019, and Indonesia, which suspended its membership in 2016.