SOS
124/122 NIGERIA AS A NATION
LESSON NOTE
What is a nation?
A
nation is primarily a community, a definite community of people.
The
Concept of "Nation"
The nation is a cultural entity
that binds people together on the basis of culturally homogenous ties – common
or related blood, a common language, a common historical tradition, common
customs and habits (Rodee et al, 1976).
A nation is thus an exclusive
group, and its essential features include: a homogenous cultural unit; specific
and shared identity among members; deep attachment to a specific territory –
the earthly home; membership is limited by ties of blood, intermarriage,
kinship and common descent; members have a shared understanding of who they
are, how they originated and have developed over time, as well as collective
belonging (Parekin, cited by Nna, 2005).
Characteristics of a nation
i. National identity
ii. Common culture
iv. Single government
v.
Religion, history,
vi. Language or
vii. Ethnicity culture,
viii.
Religion,
ix. Common or linking history
x. Language or ethnicity
Nigeria as a geo-political entity
Nigeria is
a republic in western Africa, with a coast along the Atlantic
Ocean on the Gulf of Guinea. Most Nigerian parts consist of a low plateau cut
by rivers, especially the Niger and its largest tributary, the Benue. The
country takes its name from its chief river. Until 1991, the capital was the
largest city, Lagos, on the southwestern coast; at that time, the city of
Abuja, in the country’s interior, became capital.
Nigeria is by far the
most populated of Africa’s countries, with more than one-seventh of the
continent’s people. The people belong to many different ethnic groups. These
groups give the country a rich culture, but they also pose major challenges to
nation building. Ethnic strife has plagued Nigeria since it gained independence
in 1960.
Nigeria has a federal
form of government and is divided into 36 states and a federal capital
territory. The country’s official name is the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Lagos, along the coast, is the largest city and the country’s economic and
cultural center, but Abuja, a city in the interior planned and built during the
1970s and 1980s, is the capital. The government moved from Lagos to Abuja in
1991 in the hope of creating a national capital where none of the country’s
ethnic groups would be dominant.
Nigeria long had an agricultural
economy but now depends almost entirely on the production of petroleum, which
lies in large reserves below the Niger Delta. While oil wealth has financed
major investments in the country’s infrastructure, Nigeria remains among the
world’s poorest countries in terms of per capita income. Oil revenues led the
government to ignore agriculture, and Nigeria must now import farm products to
feed its people. The colonial era began in earnest in the late 19th century,
when Britain consolidated its rule over Nigeria. In 1914 the British merged
their northern and southern protectorates into a single state called the Colony
and Protectorate of Nigeria. Nigeria became independent of British rule in
1960. After independence Nigeria experienced frequent coups and long periods of
autocratic military rule between 1966 and 1999, when a democratic civilian
government was established.
Location of Nigeria
Nigeria is located in West Africa
roughly between Latitude 4oN -14o N and Longitudes 3oE-15o
E. the country most southerly point is near Brass in the Niger Delta,
which is roughly north of the Equator. The country’s northern boundary is
approximately at 14oN. Her westerly boundary runs roughly along the
Longitudes 3oE. Her easterly boundary runs from a point to the south
west of the estuary of the Cross River to northwards almost to Longitudes 15oE.
South of Lake Chad Figure 2.1 shows the location of Nigeria. The country is
located almost in the centre of the great curve made in the west by the
continent of Africa. This means that it is roughly equidistant from the extreme
corners of Africa. The flight time to any place in Africa is relatively short.
It is only a few hours to Dakar, less than four hours to Tripoli or Algiers,
about three hours to Cairo and to Addis Ababa.
Size
Nigeria has a total land area of 923,768
square kilometres. This is four times the area of Ghana and about thirteen
times the area of Sierra Leone. It is four times the area of United Kingdom.
Nigeria covers about one seventh of the productive area of West Africa. The
location and size of the country are very important for a number of reasons:
- Because of its location close to the
equator and the Atlantic Ocean, Nigeria enjoys a hot tropical climate.
Rainfall decreases from over 4000mm in the Nigeria Delta to less than
250mm in its extreme north east. There is sufficient rainfall for some
form of rain fed agriculture in the
country.
- Because of its location and large size,
Nigeria has the greatest diversity of climate, vegetation and soil as well
as human population in West Africa. Thus, unlike some of its neighbours
such as Niger Republic, Nigeria has a very wide range of national
resources.
Nigeria truly became one entity in
1914 after the amalgamation of northern and southern protectorates along with Lagos,
many members of different social groups located their kinsmen and friendly
neighbours outside Nigerian political boundaries. Presently the pre colonial
boundaries are occupied by the Nigerian and their neighbours from Benin
republic, Chad, Cameron and Niger. The history has it that these countries and
Nigeria is linked by blood or descendants, meaning they share common ancestors.
They also share common trade and commerce, as well as by relations of both
conflict and friendship
Nigeria is estimated 250 different
ethnic groups and many different languages, custom, culture and religions
as a result of this there was need for
the government to merge similar groups for an effective allocation of goods and
services. The three largest ethnicities are Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba. Nigeria
stands as having various geo-political zones this is as cause of the rich
ethnic diversity and national identities which is heterogeneous in nature was zoned according to their geographical
areas
The Federal Republic of Nigeria, commonly referred to as
Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic in West Africa, bordering Benin
in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast
in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. It comprises 36
states and the Federal Capital Territory, where the capital, Abuja is located.
Nigeria is officially a democratic secular countr
The highest population
densities are in the Igbo heartland in southeastern Nigeria, despite poor soils
and heavy emigration. The intensively farmed zones around and including several
major cities of the Hausa ethnic group especially Kano, Sokoto, and Zaria in
the north are also packed with people. Other areas of high density include
Yoruba land in the southwest, the central Jos Plateau, and the Tiv homeland in
Benue State in the south central region. Densities are relatively low in the
dry northeast and in most parts of the middle belt. Ecological factors,
including the prevalence of diseases such as sleeping sickness, carried by the
tsetse fly, and historical factors, especially the legacy of pre-colonial slave
raiding, help explain these low densities.
Nigeria’s three largest ethnic
groups are the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo represent about 70 percent of the
population. About 10 percent of the total population consists of several other
groups numbering more than 1 million members each, including the Kanuri, Tiv,
and Ibibio. More than 300 smaller ethnic groups account for the remaining 20
percent of the population. (However, as in most of Africa, ethnic labels in
Nigeria are often imprecise, obscuring differences within groups and
similarities among groups.) Other Fulani continue to depend on their livestock
and have retained their own language, Fulfulde, and cultural autonomy.
The Yoruba of southwestern
Nigeria incorporate seven subgroups the Egba, Ekiti, Ife, Ijebu, Kabba, Ondo,
and Oyo each identified with a particular paramount chief and city. The oni
of Ife is the spiritual head of the Yoruba. There is a strong sense of Yoruba
identity but also a history of distrust and rivalry dividing the various
groups. The majority of Yoruba are farmers or traders who live in large cities
of pre-colonial origin.
The Igbo of southeastern
Nigeria traditionally live in small, independent villages, each with an elected
council rather than a chief. Such democratic institutions notwithstanding, Igbo
society is highly stratified along lines of wealth, achievement, and social
rank. Overcrowding and degraded soil have forced many Igbo to migrate to nearby
cities and other parts of Nigeria.
Other large ethnic groups
include the Kanuri, centered in Borno State; the Tiv, from the Benue Valley
near Makurdi; the Ibibio and Efik in the Calabar area; the Edo from the Benin
region; and the Nupe, centered in the Bida area. Although small by Nigerian
standards, these lesser groups have more members than most other African
ethnicities. There are close to 400 linguistic groups or even more that are yet
to find out in Nigeria, whereas the languages that were recognized are 250
languages but the three major languages are Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba, while
English is the official language. There is also French language which is also
studied in Nigeria and it is optional.
Population, term referring to the
total human inhabitants of a specified area, such as a city, country, or
continent, at a given time. Population study as a discipline is known as
demography. It is concerned with the size, composition, and distribution of
populations; their patterns of change over time through births, deaths, and
migration; and the determinants and consequences of such changes. Population
studies yield knowledge important for planning, particularly by governments, in
fields such as health, education, housing, social security, employment, and
environmental preservation. Such studies also provide information needed to
formulate government population policies, which seek to modify demographic
trends in order to achieve economic and social objectives
Census is a term usually referring to an
official count by a national government of its country’s population. A
population census determines the size of a country’s population and the
characteristics of its people, such as their age, sex, ethnic background,
marital status, and income. National governments also conduct other types of
censuses, particularly of economic activity. An economic census collects
information on the number and characteristics of farms, factories, mines, or
businesses.
Most countries of the world conduct
population censuses at regular intervals. By comparing the results of
successive censuses, analysts can see whether the population is growing,
stable, or declining, both in the country as a whole and in particular geographic
regions. They can also identify general trends in the characteristics of the
population. Because censuses aim to count the entire population of a country,
they are very expensive and elaborate administrative operations and thus are
conducted relatively infrequently. The United States conducts a population
census every ten years (a decennial census), and Canada conducts one
every five years (a quinquennial census). Economic censuses are
generally conducted on a different schedule from the population census.
Censuses of population usually try to count
everyone in the country as of a fixed date, often known as Census Day.
Generally, governments collect the information by sending a questionnaire in
the mail or a census taker to every household or residential address in the
country. The recipients are instructed to complete the questionnaire and send
it back to the government, which processes the answers. Trained interviewers
visit households that do not respond to the questionnaire and individuals without
mail service, such as the homeless or
Governments use census information in almost all
aspects of public policy. In some countries, the population census is used to
determine the number of representatives each area within the country is legally
entitled to elect to the national legislature. The Constitution of the United
States, for example, provides that seats in the House of Representatives should
be apportioned to the states according to the number of their inhabitants. Each
decade, Congress uses the population count to determine how many seats each
state should have in the House and in the electoral college, the body that
nominally elects the president and vice president of the United States. This
process is known as reapportionment. States frequently use population
census figures as a basis for allocating delegates to the state legislatures
and for redrawing district boundaries for seats in the House, in state
legislatures, and in local legislative districts. In Canada, census population
data are similarly used to apportion seats among the provinces and territories
in the House of Commons and to draw electoral districts.
Governments at all levels such as cities,
counties, provinces, and states—find population census information of great
value in planning public services because the census tells how many people of
each age live in different areas. These governments use census data to
determine how many children an educational system must serve, to allocate funds
for public buildings such as schools and libraries, and to plan public
transportation systems. In the United States census can also be used to
determine the best locations for new roads, bridges, police departments, fire
departments, and services for the elderly.
Besides governments, many others use census data.
Private businesses analyze population and economic census data to determine
where to locate new factories, shopping malls, or banks; to decide where to
advertise particular products; or to compare their own production or sales
against the rest of their industry. Community organizations use census
information to develop social service programs and child-care centers. Censuses
make a huge variety of general statistical information about society available
to researchers, journalists, educators, and the general public.
The first Census in Nigeria before
independence held in 1866
2.
The second General Census in Nigeria was
held
1952 - 1953
3.
The first Census after independence was
held
1963
4.
The second Census after independence was
held
1973
5.
The Third Census after independence was
held
1991
6.
The Fourth Census after independence was
held
21st March, 2006
The Least Census Figure for Regional
South Eastern
Figure
16,381,729
North Western
Figure
35.786,944
South Western
Figure
27,581,992
North Eastern
Figure
18,971,965
North Central Figure
20,266,257
South southern
Figure
21,014,655
A population
census is the total process of collecting, compiling, evaluating, analyzing
and publishing or otherwise disseminating demographic, economic and social data
pertaining, at a specified time, to all persons in a country or in a well
delimited part of a country.
Population size
The 1991 national population
census gave the population of Nigeria as 88,992,220. This makes Nigeria the
most populous country in Africa. As a matter of fact, about 20% of the world’s
black populations are Nigerians.
Nigeria’s population is greater
than that of all the other countries of West Africa put together. It is nine
times the population of Ghana; about three times that of the Republic of South
Africa. Population- wise, Nigeria is the largest country in the Commonwealth,
after India and Pakistan. Nigeria’s population is both an asset and a
liability. It is an asset because:
·
When Nigeria speaks, the rest of the world
listens. Nigeria is looked up to for leadership by the black people of the
world. Part of the reason for this is the country’s large population. But there
are other factors such as its abundant natural resources and its large
crude-oil- based national income.
·
Nigeria’s large population is a large potential
market for manufacturing industries. But for this potential to be translated
into reality, the purchasing power of the people must be substantially
increased.
·
Nigeria large population could provide it with a
large labour force for economic development. But before this can happen, the
people need to be educated and provided with job skills.
·
In the unlikely event of a conventional war,
Nigeria would be in a position to raise a very large army because of her large
population.
Nigeria’s large population is a
liability because it means:
- So many people to be fed;
- So many people to be provided with shelter;
- So many people to educate;
- So many people to be provided with other social services such as water and health;
- So many people to provide with security; and
- So many people to provide with employment.
Population Growth
The population
of Nigeria was estimated at 17 million in 1921 and 21 million in 1931. The
first complete census in 1953 gave the population as 31 million. The 1963
census gave it as 55.67 million. The 1991 census put the population at
88,992,220. From the above figures, it is clear that Nigeria’s population has
been growing very rapidly over the last eighty years. The National Population
Commission (NPC) has estimated that the population of Nigeria is now growing at
about 2.8% per annum. Compared with the developed countries of the world, this
rate of growth is very high.
The National
Population Commission has estimated the population of the country in 2002 at
122,443,748. At the present rate of growth, the population figure of 1991 was
88. 5 million and 2006 was 140 million may be expected to double by or before
the year 2015. This means a doubling of the population in about 25 years. In
order to know the implications of this high rate of growth of Nigeria’s
population for economic development and the standard of living of the people,
it is necessary to compare it with the rate at which the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) is growing.
Population Distribution
One of the most striking features
of the population of Nigeria is that it is very unevenly distributed. While
some areas are very densely populated, others are only lightly populated or
virtually uninhabited. The general distribution of population in Nigeria which
may be described as follows:
- Areas of high population density which include the Igbo-Ibibio heartland of Anambara, Imo, Abia, and Akwa Ibom States; parts of Lagos State and Oyo State as well as parts of Kano, Katsin and Sokoto;
- Areas of moderate population density, which include Ogun State, Ondo, Edo, Osun, Ekiti, most of Kogi, parts of Rivers, Cross Riverr, Ebonyi and Benue States; most of Sokoto, parts of Zamfara, Katsina, Jigawa, Plateau and parts of Bauchi, Gombe, Borno and Adamawa States; and
- Areas of light population density, which include parts of Oyo, Kwara, most of Niger, most of Kebbi, most of Zamfara, most of Kaduna, Nasarawa, Taraba, parts of Bauchi and Gombe, and most of Borno and Adamawa. This uneven distribution of population is very significant when it is related to the distribution of national resources.
Integration: Concept and forms
It is clear that individuals are
the units of integration, and members of a nation are integrated as they share
a common identity. When we look at the term national integration the word
suggest a process of structural linkage between two or more parts of systems.
Taking a look from the functional view of society should draw our attention to
the functionalist perspective that states:
Integration approaches and policies differ in many
respects. The assimilation and multicultural approaches appear dominant.
Assimilation attempts to fuse distinct ethnic groups into one. It presupposes
that some groups will abandon their identity and incorporate themselves into a
national identity. This could be the culture of a dominant group, or the
creation of an entirely new culture out of the distinct entities. Alapiki
(1998) has noted that the assimilations’ approach to integration has failed to
provide a useful model of integration in Africa.
Efforts at national
integration
National symbols,
National
Symbols of Nigeria: Horse, Eagle, Arise, O Compatriots, Flag of Nigeria, seal
of the president of Nigeria and coat of Arms of Nigeria
Set of
different symbols in national colours of Nigeria.
The national symbols of Nigeria
The national symbols of Nigeria
represent the varied customary beliefs of the country that has been a part of
its rich heritage since many years. With a population of more than 1 million,
the country of Nigeria stands tall as one of the fastest growing economies of
the world. An analysis of the background of the national symbols of Nigeria
gives you a clear idea of the various aspects of Nigerian life.
The present day national anthem
of Nigeria serves as no less than nationalistic call to unify the country and
bring in era of prosperity and peace in the country. Facts indicate that the
first national anthem of Nigeria was composed by two British nationals but in
the year 1978, the group which emerged out as the winner from the competition
was credited for composing the national song of Nigeria. The privileged group
of writers was:
John A Ilechukwu, Eme Etim
Akpan, B A Ogunnaike, Sota Omoigui and P. O. Aderibigbe. The music was composed
by Nigerian Police Band, led by Ben Odiase. 2.
National flag of Nigeria
This is a glorious history to
bank upon; the national flag of Nigeria represents the cultural identity of the
country. The flag of Nigeria was actually designed in the year 1959 and
officially adopted on 1st October 1960. Unlike other countries, there was no
special emphasis and a historical incident to inspire the proposed ensign for
the national flag of Nigeria. It was designed by Michael Taiwo Akinkunmi who
was then a student in London and belonged to Ibadan, a city located in the
south western part of Nigeria. The Nigerian flag is divided into three equal
parts of green with white color in the central part. The green stands for
agriculture of the country while the white represents peace and prosperity of
the land.
Symbolic
significance of 'Coat of Arms of Nigeria' lies in the fact that it truly
represents the rich natural diversity along with the past historical splendor
of the country which is very dear to the people of Nigerian origin and the
citizens of Nigeria. The Coat of Arms of Nigeria has a black shield with two
white flattened stripes blazing in the shape of alphabet 'Y' in the harbor
shield. The black shield represents the fertile land of Nigeria and the silver
white wavy stripes stands for the rivers Niger and Benue. Each image in the
picture has a symbolic significance as the two white horses exemplify dignity
while eagle stands for strength. The ground of the shield is covered with
Coctus Spectablis, a common wild flower found in different parts of Nigeria.
Thus, the importance of the
national symbols of Nigeria has been widely recognized through out the country.
Various
integrative mechanisms have been adopted in Nigeria since 1914, till date:
(i) The Amalgamation
(ii) Nigerianization Policy
(iii) National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) Scheme
(iv) Unity Schools
(v) National Language Policy
(vi) Federalism, Party Politics
(vii) New Federal Capital Territory
(viii) States and Local Governments Creation
Possibly, the greatest challenge facing
Nigeria today is the threat to national unity, as centrifugal tensions,
resource control and self-determination, ethnicity based identity politics and
religious cleavages have enveloped national consciousness. Since independence
in 1960, national integration has been a top priority of governments in
Nigeria. The National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) Scheme, the Unity Schools, the
Federal Character Principle, and State Creation are examples of state policies intended
to achieve this goal.
Strategies
for Ensuring National Integration
The greatest challenges facing Nigeria today
is the threat to national unity, as centrifugal tensions, resource control and
self determination, ethnicity based identity politics and religious cleavages
have enveloped national consciousness. Ever since Nigeria got her independence
in 1960, the national integration has been a top priority of governments in
Nigeria.
i.
The
National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) Scheme,
ii.
the Unity Schools,
iii.
the Federal
Character Principle,
iv.
and State Creation are examples of state
policies intended to achieve this aim.
It is clear that outcome of integration
policies and programmes in Nigeria have fallen far below expectation, as
primordial ethnic loyalties are still deep seated. The ethnic particularism is
seen as the major cause of this failure. (Naanen, 1995), and
consequently, suggestions on policy options are targeted to deal with this
issue.
Thus, the term
national integration is not applicable to a single nation, but involves two or
more nations. A state is a political entity that is in many cases made of more
than one nationality group. Thus, for example Nigeria is made of about 250
ethnic groups
Plurality of groups many times throw up
centrifugal forces that tend to tear countries apart. This reality imposes the
need to integrate the distinct ethnic groups to become a monolithic whole that
shares a common identity and destiny.
National integration is a process that
attempts to erode the presence of micro-nationalities in place of a spirit of
nationhood (Alapiki, 2000). This is achieved through the breakdown of ethnic
barriers, the elimination of primordial ethnic loyalties, and the development
of a sense of common identity.
Integration
approaches and policies differ in many respects. The assimilation multicultural
approaches appear dominant. Assimilation attempts to fuse distinct ethnic
groups into one. It presupposes that some groups will abandon their identity
and incorporate themselves into a national identity. This could be the culture
of a dominant group, or the creation of an entirely new culture out of the
distinct entities. Alapiki (1998) has noted that the assimilations’ approach to
integration has failed to provide a useful model of integration in Africa. This
probably explains the preference for multiculturalism that emphasizes
coexistence among different ethnic nationalities, guided by respect for
differences and common interest and
Other Strategies for National Unity and
Integration in Nigeria
1.
Investment in Education
The development
of man to enable him creates and recreates himself (Okorosaye – Orubite, 2008);
the pursuit of a wide-range of activities, planned and managed for the benefit
of society and its members (Audu, 2004); the systematic influencing of peoples
knowledge, skills and attitudes (Nduka, 2006); the transmission from one
generation to another, the accumulated wisdom, knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes of the society (Nyerere, 1976).
2. Implementation of food security policies
Food security is
one of the monsters that target many developing countries of the world. With
the majority of people in this part of the world as farmers, there is an urgent
need to save the rural communities through the provision of an adequate
infrastructure. Such a system would support food and cash crop production for
domestic consumption and export (brings foreign funds for development of the
country).
3. Citizenship Education: Nigerian
government recommends teaching citizenship education to help prepare both the
teachers and students to know their civic rights as a citizen of the country.
Since citizenship education is an ideal tool for exploring our values, therefore it is very essential to ones lives.
4. Political Participation: this is
defined as the extent to which citizens avail themselves of those ordinary
democratic rights of political activity to which they are constitutionally
entitled, and the measure is held by political sociologists to indicate the
nature of the country’s political culture. Most often electoral turn out is
used to measure political participation. Non – participation in political
affairs may be an indicator either that citizens are satisfied with their
lives, or that they are apathetic and believe that participation will achieve
nothing.
5. Democratic Stability in Nigeria: stable
democracy brings about understanding and development. With this there would be
awareness and the need of coming together to share reasonable ideas that would
help them to achieve their goal.
There are also other integrative mechanisms that have
been adopted such as National Festivals of Arts and Culture, National Sports
Festival, National Football League, as well as other sports competitions,
policy of Federal Character (cf. Osaghae, 1994; Yakubu, 2003), which was to
ensure that public appointments and positions are spread across members of all
the geo-political zones, states, local governments, wards and communities such
that all ethnic, linguistic and cultural groups are represented in government
institutions and agencies as much as possible.
Social Problems and Control
Perhaps
Nigeria's greatest social problem is the internal violence plaguing the nation.
Interethnic fighting throughout the country, religious rioting between Muslims
and non-Muslims over the creation of Shari'a law (strict Islamic law) in the
northern states, and political confrontations between ethnic minorities and
backers of oil companies often spark bloody confrontations that can last days
or even months. When violence of this type breaks out, national and state
police try to control it. However, the police themselves are often accused of
some of the worst violence. In some instances, curfews and martial law have
been imposed in specific areas to try to stem outbreaks of unrest.
Poverty and
lack of opportunity for many young people, especially in urban areas, have led
to major crime. Lagos is considered one of the most dangerous cities in West
Africa due to its incredibly high crime rate. The police are charged with
controlling crime, but their lack of success often leads to vigilante justice.
In some
rural areas there are some more traditional ways of addressing social problems.
In many ethnic groups, such as the Igbo and the Yoruba, men are organized into secret
societies. Initiated members of these societies often dress in masks and palm
leaves to masquerade as the physical embodiment of traditional spirits to help
maintain social order. Through ritual dance, these men will give warnings about
problems with an individual's or community's morality in a given situation.
Because belief in witchcraft and evil spirits is high throughout Nigeria, this
kind of public accusation can instill fear in people and cause them to mend
their ways. Members of secret societies also can act as judges or
intermediaries in disputes.
Military Activities
Nigeria's
military consists of an army, a navy, an air force, and a police force. The
minimum age for military service is eighteen.
The Nigerian
military is the largest and best-equipped military in West Africa. As a member
of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Nigeria is the major
contributor to the organization's military branch, known as ECOMOG. Nigerian
troops made up the vast majority of the ECOMOG forces deployed to restore peace
following civil wars in Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, and Sierra Leone. Public
dissatisfaction with Nigeria's participation in the Sierra Leonean crisis was
extremely high due to high casualty rates among the Nigerian soldiers. Nigeria pledged
to pull out of Sierra Leone in 1999, prompting the United Nations to send in
peacekeepers in an attempt stem the violence. While the foreign forces in
Sierra Leone are now under the mandate of the United Nations, Nigerian troops
still make up the majority of the peacekeepers.
Nigeria has
a long-running border dispute with Cameroon over the mineral-rich Bakasi
Peninsula, and the two nations have engaged in a series of cross-boarder
skirmishes. Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger, and Chad also have a long-running border
dispute over territory in the Lake Chad region, which also has led to some
fighting across the borders.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship
Marriage: There are three types of marriage in Nigeria today:
religious marriage, civil marriage, and traditional marriage. A Nigerian couple
may decide to take part in one or all of these marriages. Religious marriages,
usually Christian or Muslim, are conducted according to the norms of the
respective religious teachings and take place in a church or a mosque. Christian
males are allowed only one wife, while Muslim men can take up to four wives.
Civil official weddings take place in a government registry office. Men are
allowed only one wife under a civil wedding, regardless of religion.
Traditional marriages usually are held at the wife's house and are performed
according to the customs of the ethnic group involved. Most ethnic groups
traditionally allow more than one wife.
Depending on
whom you ask, polygamy has both advantages and disadvantages in Nigerian society.
Some Nigerians see polygamy as a divisive force in the family, often pitting
one wife against another. Others see polygamy as a unifying factor, creating a
built-in support system that allows wives to work as a team.
While
Western ways of courtship and marriage are not unheard of, the power of
traditional values and the strong influence of the family mean that traditional
ways are usually followed, even in the cities and among the elite. According to
old customs, women did not have much choice of whom they married, though the
numbers of arranged marriages are declining. It is also not uncommon for women
to marry in their teens, often to a much older man. In instances where there
are already one or more wives, it is the first wife's responsibility to look after
the newest wife and help her integrate into the family.
Many
Nigerian ethnic groups follow the practice of offering a bride price for an
intended wife. Unlike a dowry, in which the woman would bring something of
material value to the marriage, a bride price is some form of compensation the
husband must pay before he can marry a wife.
Early History
Little is known of the earliest history of
Nigeria. By c.2000 B.C. most of the country was sparsely inhabited by persons
who had a rudimentary knowledge of raising domesticated food plants and of
herding animals. From c.800 B.C. to c.A.D. 200 the Nok culture (named for the
town where archaeological findings first were made) flourished on the Jos
Plateau; the Nok people made fine terra-cotta sculptures and probably knew how
to work tin and iron. The first important centralized state to influence
Nigeria was Kanem-Bornu, which probably was founded in the 8th cent. A.D., to
the north of Lake Chad (outside modern Nigeria). In the 11th cent., by which
time its rulers had been converted to Islam, Kanem-Bornu expanded south of Lake
Chad into present-day Nigeria, and in the late 15th cent. its capital was moved
there.
Beginning in the 11th cent. seven independent
Hausa city-states were founded in N Nigeria—Biram, Daura, Gobir, Kano, Katsina,
Rano, and Zaria. Kano and Katsina competed for the lucrative trans-Saharan
trade with Kanem-Bornu, and for a time had to pay tribute to it. In the early
16th cent. all of Hausaland was briefly held by the Songhai Empire. However, in
the late 16th cent., Kanem-Bornu replaced Songhai as the leading power in N
Nigeria, and the Hausa states regained their autonomy. In southwest Nigeria two
states—Oyo and Benin—had developed by the 14th cent.; the rulers of both states
traced their origins to Ife, renowned for its naturalistic terra-cotta and
brass sculpture. Benin was the leading state in the 15th cent. but began to
decline in the 17th cent., and by the 18th cent. Oyo controlled Yorubaland and
also Dahomey. The Igbo people in the southeast lived in small village communities.
In the late 15th cent. Portuguese navigators
became the first Europeans to visit Nigeria. They soon began to purchase slaves
and agricultural produce from coastal middlemen; the slaves had been captured
further inland by the middlemen. The Portuguese were followed by British,
French, and Dutch traders. Among the Igbo and Ibibio a number of city-states
were established by individuals who had become wealthy by engaging in the slave
trade; these included Bonny,
Owome, and Okrika.
The Nineteenth Century
There were major internal changes in Nigeria in
the 19th cent. In 1804, Usuman
dan Fodio (1754–1817), a Fulani and a pious Muslim, began a holy war to
reform the practice of Islam in the north. He soon conquered the Hausa
city-states, but Bornu, led by Muhammad al-Kanemi (also a Muslim reformer)
until 1835, maintained its independence. In 1817, Usuman dan Fodio's son,
Muhammad Bello (d.1837) established a state centered at Sokoto,
which controlled most of N Nigeria until the coming of the British (1900–1906).
Under both Usuman dan Fodio and Muhammad Bello, Muslim culture, and also trade,
flourished in the Fulani empire. In Bornu, Muhammad al-Kanemi was succeeded by
Umar (reigned 1835–80), under whom the empire disintegrated.
In 1807, Great Britain abandoned the slave trade;
however, other countries continued it until about 1875. Meanwhile, many African
middlemen turned to selling palm products, which were Nigeria's chief export by
the middle of the century. In 1817 a long series of civil wars began in the Oyo
Empire; they lasted until 1893 (when Britain intervened), by which time the
empire had disintegrated completely.
In order to stop the slave trade there, Britain
annexed Lagos in 1861. In 1879, Sir George Goldie
gained control of all the British firms trading on the Niger, and in the 1880s
he took over two French companies active there and signed treaties with
numerous African leaders. Largely because of Goldie's efforts, Great Britain
was able to claim S Nigeria at the Conference of Berlin (see Berlin,
Conference of) held in 1884–85.
In the following years, the British established
their rule in SW Nigeria, partly by signing treaties (as in the Lagos
hinterland) and partly by using force (as at Benin in 1897). Jaja, a
leading African trader based at Opobo in the
Niger delta and strongly opposed to European competition, was captured in 1887
and deported. Goldie's firm, given (1886) a British royal charter, as the Royal
Niger Company, to administer the Niger River and N Nigeria, antagonized
Europeans and Africans alike by its monopoly of trade on the Niger; in
addition, it was not sufficiently powerful to gain effective control over N
Nigeria, which was also sought by the French.
Colonialism
Means one country’s domination of another country
or people usually achieved through aggressive, often military, actions and the
territory acquired in this manner. The terms colonialism and imperialism
are sometimes used interchangeably, but scholars usually distinguish between
the two, reserving colonialism for instances where one country assumes
political control over another and using imperialism more broadly to
refer to political or economic control exercised either formally or informally.
In 1900 the Royal Niger Company's
charter was revoked and British forces under Frederick Lugard
began to conquer the north, taking Sokoto in 1903. By 1906, Britain controlled
Nigeria, which was divided into the Colony (i.e., Lagos) and Protectorate of
Southern Nigeria and the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria. In 1914 the two
regions were amalgamated and the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria was
established.
The administration of Nigeria was based on a
system devised by Lugard and called "indirect rule"; under this
system, Britain ruled through existing political institutions rather than
establishing a wholly new administrative network. In some areas (especially the
southeast) new African officials (resembling the traditional rulers in other
parts of the country) were set up; in most cases they were not accepted by the
mass of the people and were able to rule only because British power stood
behind them. All important decisions were made by the British governor, and the
African rulers, partly by being associated with the colonialists, soon lost
most of their traditional authority. Occasionally (as in Aba in 1929)
discontent with colonial rule flared into open protest.
Under the British, railroads and roads were built
and the production of cash crops, such as palm nuts and kernels, cocoa, cotton,
and peanuts, was encouraged. The country became more urbanized as Lagos,
Ibadan, Kano, Onitsha, and other cities grew in size and importance. From 1922,
African representatives from Lagos and Calabar were elected to the legislative
council of Southern Nigeria; they constituted only a small minority, and
Africans otherwise continued to have no role in the higher levels of government.
Self-help groups organized on ethnic lines were established in the cities. A
small Western-educated elite developed in Lagos and a few other southern
cities.
In 1947, Great Britain promulgated a constitution
that gave the traditional authorities a greater voice in national affairs. The
Western-educated elite was excluded, and, led by Herbert Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe,
its members vigorously denounced the constitution. As a result, a new
constitution, providing for elected representation on a regional basis, was
instituted in 1951.
Three major political parties emerged—the
National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC; from 1960 known as the
National Convention of Nigerian Citizens), led by Azikiwe and largely based
among the Igbo; the Action Group, led by Obafemi Awolowo
and with a mostly Yoruba membership; and the Northern People's Congress (NPC),
led by Ahmadu Bello and based in the north. The constitution proved unworkable
by 1952, and a new one, solidifying the division of Nigeria into three regions
(Eastern, Western, and Northern) plus the Federal Territory of Lagos, came into
force in 1954. In 1956 the Eastern and Western regions became internally
self-governing, and the Northern region achieved this status in 1959.
Independence and Internal
Conflict
With Nigerian independence scheduled for 1960,
elections were held in 1959. No party won a majority, and the NPC combined with
the NCNC to form a government. Nigeria attained independence on Oct. 1, 1960,
with Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
of the NPC as prime minister and Azikiwe of the NCNC as governor-general; when
Nigeria became a republic in 1963, Azikiwe was made president.
The first years of independence were
characterized by severe conflicts within and between regions. In the Western
region, a bloc of the Action Group split off (1962) under S. I. Akintola to
form the Nigerian National Democratic party (NNDP); in 1963 the Mid-Western
region (whose population was mostly Edo) was formed from a part of the Western
region. National elections late in 1964 were hotly contested, with an NPC-NNDP
coalition (called the National Alliance) emerging victorious.
In Jan., 1966, Igbo army officers staged a
successful coup, which resulted in the deaths of Federal Prime Minister Balewa,
Northern Prime Minister Ahmadu Bello, and Western Prime Minister S. I.
Akintola. Maj. Gen. Johnson T. U. Aguiyi-Ironsi, an Igbo, became head of a
military government and suspended the national and regional constitutions; this
met with a violent reaction in the north. In July, 1966, a coup led by Hausa
army officers ousted Ironsi (who was killed) and placed Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon
at the head of a new military regime. In Sept., 1966, many Igbo living in the
north were massacred.
Gowon attempted to start Nigeria along the road
to civilian government but met determined resistance from the Igbo, who were
becoming increasingly fearful of their position within Nigeria. In May, 1967,
the Eastern parliament gave Lt. Col. Chukwuemeka Odumegwu. Ojukwu,
the region's leader, authority to declare the region an independent republic.
Gowon proclaimed a state of emergency, and, as a gesture to the Igbos,
redivided Nigeria into 12 states (including one, the East-Central state, that
comprised most of the Igbo people). However, on May 30, Ojukwu proclaimed the
independent Republic of Biafra,
and in July fighting broke out between Biafra and Nigeria.
Biafra made some advances early in the war, but
soon federal forces gained the initiative. After much suffering, Biafra
capitulated on Jan. 15, 1970, and the secession ended. The early 1970s were
marked by reconstruction in areas that were formerly part of Biafra, by the
gradual reintegration of the Igbo into national life, and by a slow return to
civilian rule.
Events and
Important dates in the history of Nigeria
In 1929 Aba was the site of the Women's War, also called the
“Aba riots.” Angry at high taxes imposed by British officials and the low
return on their palm kernel crops, the women of the area rose up in mass
protests, burning buildings and driving off some of the authorities. Government
troops were sent in, and approximately 50 women were killed in the conflict.
Circa 800 BC - Jos plateau
settled by Nok - a Neolithic and iron age civilization.
Circa 11th century onwards -
Formation of city states, kingdoms and empires, includes Hausa kingdoms and
Borno dynasty in north, Oyo and Benin kingdoms in south.
1472 - Portuguese navigators
reach Nigerian coast.
16-18th centuries - Slave trade:
Millions of Nigerians are forcibly sent to
America.
1809 - Single Islamic state -
Sokoto caliphate - is founded in north.
1830s-1886 - Civil wars plague
Yorubaland, in the south.
1850s - British establish presence
around Lagos.
1861-1914 - Britain consolidates
its hold over what it calls the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, governs by
"indirect rule" through local leaders.
1922 - Part of former German
colony Kamerun is added to Nigeria under League of Nations mandate.
1960 - Independence, with Prime
Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa leading a coalition government.
1962-63 - Controversial census
fuels regional and ethnic tensions.
1966 January - Balewa killed in
coup. Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi heads up military administration.
1966 July - Ironsi killed in
counter-coup, replaced by Lieutenant-Colonel Yakubu Gowon.
1967 - Three eastern states
secede as the Republic of Biafra, sparking bloody civil war.
1970 - Biafran leaders
surrender, former Biafran regions reintegrated into country.
1975 - Gowon overthrown flees to
Britain, replaced by Brigadier Murtala Ramat Mohammed, who begins process of
moving federal capital to Abuja.
1976 - Mohammed assassinated in
failed coup attempt. Replaced by his deputy, Lieutenant-General Olusegun
Obasanjo, who helps introduce American-style presidential constitution.
1979 - Elections brought Alhaji
Shehu Shagari to power.
1983 January - The government
expels more than one million foreigners, mostly Ghanaians, saying they had
overstayed their visas and were taking jobs from Nigerians. The move is
condemned abroad but proves popular in Nigeria.
1983 August, September - Shagari
re-elected amid accusations of irregularities.
1983 December - Major-General
Muhammad Buhari seizes power in bloodless coup.
1985 - Ibrahim Babangida seizes
power in bloodless coup, curtails political activity.
1993 June - Military annuls
elections when preliminary results show victory by Chief Moshood Abiola.
1993 August - Power transferred
to Interim National Government.
1993 November - General Sani
Abacha seizes power, suppresses opposition.
1994 - Abiola arrested after
proclaiming himself president.
1995 - Ken Saro-Wiwa, writer and
campaigner against oil industry damage to his Ogoni homeland, is executed
following a hasty trial. In protest, European Union imposes sanctions until
1998, Commonwealth suspends Nigeria's membership until 1998.
1998 - Abacha dies, succeeded by
Major-General Abdulsalami Abubakar. Chief Abiola dies in custody a month later.
1999 - Parliamentary and
presidential elections. Olusegun Obasanjo sworn in as president.
2000 - Adoption of Islamic, or
Sharia, law by several northern states in the face of opposition from
Christians. Tension over the issue results in hundreds of deaths in clashes
between Christians and Muslims
2001 - Tribal war in Benue
state, in eastern-central Nigeria, displaces thousands of people.
2001 October - Nigerian
President Olusegun Obasanjo, South African President Mbeki and Algerian
President Bouteflika launch New Partnership for African Development, or Nepad,
which aims to foster development and open government and end wars in return for
aid, foreign investment and the lifting of trade barriers to African exports.
2002 February - Some 100 people
were killed in Lagos in clashes between Hausas from mainly-Islamic north and
ethnic Yorubas from predominantly-Christian southwest.
2002 November - More than 200
people die in four days of rioting stoked by Muslim fury over the planned Miss
World beauty pageant in Kaduna in December. The event is relocated to Britain.
2003 12 April - First
legislative elections since end of military rule in 1999. Polling marked by
delays, allegations of ballot-rigging. President Obasanjo's People's Democratic
Party wins parliamentary majority
2003 19 April - First
civilian-run presidential elections since end of military rule. Olusegun
Obasanjo elected for second term with more than 60% of vote. Opposition parties
reject result. EU poll observers cite "serious irregularities".
Nigeria is a big oil exporter, but violence and
oil spills dog the industry
2003 July - Nationwide general
strike called off after nine days after government agrees to lower
recently-increased fuel prices.
2003 August - Inter-communal
violence in the Niger Delta town of Warri kills about 100 people, injures
1,000.
2003 September - Nigeria's first
satellite, NigeriaSat-1, launched by Russian rocket.
2004 January - UN brokers talks
between Nigeria and Cameroon about disputed border. Both sides agree to joint
security patrols.
2004 May - State of emergency is
declared in the central Plateau State after more than 200 Muslims are killed in
Yelwa in attacks by Christian militia; revenge attacks are launched by Muslim
youths in Kano.
2004, August-September - Deadly
clashes between gangs in oil city of Port Harcourt prompts strong crackdown by
troops. Rights group Amnesty International cites death toll of 500, of which
about 20 died.
2005 July - Paris Club of rich
lenders agrees to write off two-thirds of Nigeria's $30bn foreign debt.
2006 January onwards - Militants
in the Niger Delta attack pipelines and other oil facilities and kidnap foreign
oil workers. The rebels demand more control over the region's oil wealth.
2006 February - More than 100
people are killed when religious violence flares in mainly-Muslim towns in the
north and in the southern city of Onitsha.
2006 April - Helped by record
oil prices, Nigeria becomes the first African nation to pay off its debt to the
Paris Club of rich lenders.
2006 May - The Senate rejects
proposed changes to the constitution which would have allowed President
Obasanjo to stand for a third term in 2007.
2006 August - Nigeria cedes
sovereignty over the disputed Bakassi peninsula to neighbouring Cameroon under
the terms of a 2002 International Court of Justice ruling. A special
transitional arrangement for the Nigerian civilian administration will be in
place for five years.
2006 October - Spiritual leader
of Nigeria's millions of Muslims, the Sultan of Sokoto, is killed in a plane
crash, the country's third major civilian air disaster in a year.
2007 April - Umaru Yar'Adua of
the ruling People's Democratic Party is proclaimed winner of the presidential
election.
2007 September - The rebel
Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (Mend) threatens to end a
self-imposed ceasefire and to launch fresh attacks on oil facilities and abductions
of foreign workers.
2007 November - Suspected
Nigerian militants kill 21 Cameroon soldiers in Bakassi peninsula.
Nigerian senate rejects Nigeria-Cameroon
agreement for hand-over of Bakassi peninsula to Cameroon.
2007 December - Anti-corruption
chief Nuhu Ribadu is sidelined, but a high-profile graft-related arrest follows
soon after.
2008 January - Oil trades at
$100 a barrel for the first time, with violence in oil producing countries such
as Nigeria and Algeria helping to drive up prices.
2008 February - Mend leaders
Henry Okah and Edward Atata extradited from Angola on suspicion of involvement
in attacks on oil companies. Report that Okah was subsequently killed in
custody proved to be untrue.
Tribunal upholds election of Umaru Yar'Adua as
president following challenge by rivals who wanted the vote annulled because of
vote rigging.
2008 April - Two former health
ministers and a daughter of President Olusegun Obasanjo are among 12 top health
officials charged with embezzling around 470m naira (4m dollars) of public
health funds.
Oil production cut by about half as a result of
strike action and attacks on pipelines by militants; problems in Nigeria help
keep world oil prices at record highs.
2008 August - Following
agreement reached in March, Nigeria finally hands over the Bakassi peninsula to
Cameroon, ending a long-standing dispute.
Iran agrees to share nuclear technology with
Nigeria to help it increase its generation of electricity.
2008 September - Militants in
the Niger Delta step up their attacks on oil installations, in response to what
they describe as unprovoked attacks by the military on their bases.
2008 October - The government
announces major budget cuts following steep falls in the price of oil.
2008 November - At least 200
people are killed during clashes between Christians and Muslims in the central
Nigerian town of Jos.
2009 January - The main militant
group in Niger Delta, Mend, calls off four-month cease-fire after army attacks
camp of an allied group.
2009 March - Nineteen opposition
parties unite to form a "mega-party" to compete against the governing
People's Democratic Party in elections due in 2011.
2009 May - Niger Delta militant
group Mend rejects government offer of amnesty and declares offensive against
Nigerian military.
2009 July - Hundreds die in
northeastern Nigeria after the Boko Haram Islamist movement launches a campaign
of violence in a bid to have Sharia law imposed on the entire country. Security
forces storm Boko Haram's stronghold and kill the movement's leader.
Government frees the leader of the Niger Delta
militant group Mend, Henry Okah, after he accepts an amnesty offer.
2009 August - Two-month offer of
a government amnesty for Niger Delta militants comes into force.
2009 November - President
Yar'Adua travels to Saudi Arabia to be treated for a heart condition. His
extended absence triggers a constitutional crisis and leads to calls for him to
step down.
2010 January - At least 149
people are killed during two days of violence between Christian and Muslim
gangs in the central city of Jos.
2010 March - More than 120
people were killed in clashes between Muslims and Christians in the flashpoint
city of Jos.
2010 May - President Umaru
Yar'Adua dies after a long illness. Vice-president Goodluck Jonathan, already
acting in Yar'Adua's stead, succeeds him.
2010 October - Nigeria marks 50
years of independence. Celebrations in Abuja marred by deadly bomb blasts
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