PRE-NCE NOTE POL 012

Blog Lesson Note POL 012 Pre-NCE 2018

Area to cover for POL 012 Pre-NCE

Pre-colonial politics, system structure of governance among the Tivs, Hausa, Kanem- Bornu, Igbo and Yoruba, British conquest and rule in Nigeria (process of acquisition, administrative policy and impact of the rule), comparison of Brithish and French colonial administration, Nationalist Movements, Influence of External factors, constitutional development from 1922-1960. 

Pre-colonial Political system of the Tivs

Are people living on both sides of the Benue River in Nigeria; they speak a language of the Benue-Congo branch of the Niger-Congo family.

The Tivs are subsistence farmers whose main crops are yams, millet, and sorghum, all of which are eaten as porridge or are made more palatable by their combination in sauces and stews. Although goats and chickens are plentiful, few cattle are kept because of the tsetse fly. The polygynous Tiv family occupies a cluster of round huts surrounding a reception hut; brothers usually live next to one another.

Tiv social organization is based on patrilineages that are closely associated with particular geographic features; in segmentary lineage systems such as the Tiv’s, a given lineage may be associated, more or less exactly, to a particular village, a group of lineages to a larger district, and so on. Genealogies go back many generations to a single ancestor; the descendants (through the male line) of each person in the genealogy thus form a territorial kinship group. The force of patrilineal descent, while dominant in Tiv institutions, is balanced by institutions such as age grades (groups of men of about the same age who provide mutual assistance and allies against lineage pressure), cooperative groups, and institutionalized friendships. Although traditionally the Tiv had no chiefs (political decisions were made by lineage elders), the British administration established a paramount chief in 1948. The Tiv’s complex system of exchange marriage was outlawed in 1927 and was replaced by marriage with bride wealth.

Some Tiv are Christians, and a lesser number adopted Islam; but their traditional religion, based on the manipulation of forces (akombo) entrusted to humans by a creator god, remains strong. The akombo are manifested in certain symbols or emblems and in diseases that they create. An organization of elders who have the ability to manipulate these forces meets at night to repair those manifestations of akombo (e.g., epidemics) that affect the group; these phenomena require human sacrifice or its metaphorical equivalent. The Tiv numbered about 2,500,000 in the late 20th century.

Political Organization of the Tiv

The Tiv political organization was traditionally based solely on the lineage principle. That principle was recognized by the colonial government, which nevertheless added a hierarchy of offices, one for each lineage level recognized by the government. Market organizations were often used for political purposes.

Pre-colonial Political Administration of the Hausa

Immediately after the great Jihad war (1804-1810) led by Usman Dan Fodio, the former fourteen Hausa states were merged and then divided into two caliphates. The eastern caliphate which included states like Yola, Gombe, Kano, Zaria and Katsina had Sokoto as its capital territory while the western caliphate, including Ilorin, Argungun and Kontagora had Gwandu as its capital city. Usman Dan Fodio became the head (Sarkin Muslim) of the whole Hausa land while the control of Sokoto (eastern) and Gwandu (western) caliphates went to Bello, Usman Dan Fodio’s son and Abdullah, Usman Dan Fodio’s brother respectively.

Moreover, the Sokoto and Gwandu caliphates were sub divided into emirates for easy administration. Each emirate was headed by an Emir who was appointed from two or three ruling families with the approval of the Emir of Sokoto or Gwandu, depending on the emirate who were in charge of the selection. These lesser Emirs were responsible to the Emirs of Sokoto and Gwandu respectively.

However, in each emirate, the Emir was assisted by some officials who were assigned to certain duties. These officials included, the ‘Waziri’ who was the administrative officer or prime minister; the ‘Galadima’ who was in charge of the capitals; the ‘Madawaki’ who was the commander of the army; the ‘Dogari’ who was the head of the police; the ‘Maaji’, the treasurer; the ‘Sarkin Ruwa’, the river fishing official; the ‘Sarkin Fada’ who was responsible for the administration of the palace; and the ‘Sarkin Pawa’, the head of all butchers. All these officials, who were appointed by the Emir, were consulted in running the day to day affairs of the emirate. This can be said to be a similarity to the Yoruba political administration, but unlike a Yoruba kingdom, power was centralized in the hands of the Emir who had absolute control over these officials and could depose or dethrone any of them at his will.

Each emirate was further divided into districts which were headed by an official known as Hakimi. The Hakimi was appointed by the Emir to oversee the affairs of each district which included maintaining peace and order and collection of taxes like Jangali (cattle tax), Jizyah (land tax) and Zakat. The Hakimi was however assisted in carrying out these functions by the village heads whom he appointed himself.

The judicial administration of Hausa land was based on Sharia law which covered a wide range of issues like marriage, divorce, theft, murder, debt and so on. These laws were interpreted by the Alkali judges in the Alkali courts. Each emirate could have more than one Alkali court depending on its size. However, issues not covered by the Sharia law were transferred to the Emir court where the Emir could preside over such issues. The Emir must be careful in making his laws or judgments as they must not go against the will of Islam religion which was the main practice of the people in Hausa land, for example, the Emir could not legalize the drinking of alcohol in the emirate. Therefore, the legislative powers of the land can be said to be solely wielded by the Emir in accordance to the religion of Islam.

The Hausa pre-colonial political system was a highly centralized while, the Emir posses almost all the powers. This was one of the main reasons why the Indirect Rule System was very successful in the Northern part of Nigeria (Hausa/Fulani Empire).

THE KANEM-BORNU EMPIRE

The first well documented state in the northern region was the kingdom of Kanem Bornu, which emerged east of Lake Chad in what is now southwestern Chad by the 9th century ad. Kanem profited from trade ties with North Africa and the Nile Valley, from which it also received Islam. The Saifawas, Kanem’s ruling dynasty, periodically enlarged their holdings by conquest and marriage into the ruling families of vassal states. The empire, however, failed to sustain a lasting peace. During one conflict-ridden period sometime between the 12th and 14th centuries, the Saifawas were forced to move across Lake Chad into Bornu, in what is now far northeastern Nigeria. There, the Kanem intermarried with the native peoples, and the new group became known as the Kanuri. The Kanuri state centered first in Kanem and then in Bornu, is known as the Kanem-Bornu Empire, hereafter referred to as Bornu.

The Kanuri eventually returned to Chad and conquered the empire lost by the Saifawas. Its dominance thus assured, Bornu became a flourishing center of Islamic culture that rivaled Mali to the far west. The kingdom also grew rich in trade, which focused on salt from the Sahara and locally produced textiles. In the late 16th century, the Bornu king Idris Alooma expanded the kingdom again, and although the full extent of the expansion is not clear, Bornu exerted considerable political influence over Hausa land to the west. In the mid- and late 18th century, severe droughts and famines weakened the kingdom, but in the early 19th century Bornu enjoyed a brief revival under al-Kanemi, a shrewd military leader who resisted a Fulani revolution that swept over much of Nigeria. Al-Kanemi’s descendants continue as traditional rulers within Borno State. The Kanem-Bornu Empire ceased to exist in 1846 when it was absorbed into the Wadai sultanate to the east.

Pre-Colonial Political System in Igbo land

The Igbo pre-colonial political system was described as an ‘a cephalous political system‘which can be translated as ‘a leaderless or chief less political system’. This term is suitable for describing the Igbo pre-colonial political system why because it was decentralized and based on village and direct democracy where everyone in the village has the authority to contribute in decision making. Each Igbo village was seen as a political unit inhabited by related families who were bounded by common beliefs and origin. Each family head in the village held the ‘Ofo‘ title and altogether formed the council of elders. The council of elders presided over important issues on the village’s welfare, safety, development and so on. Among the council of elders, one was recognized as the most senior to others. He was the ‘Okpara‘. He could call for and adjourn a meeting, and could also give judgments as well.  

The council of elders was believed to be earthly representatives of the Igbo ancestors. They maintained the age long customs, traditions and laws of the land. These included laws against misbehavior or immoral acts in which suitable punishment would be meted out to its perpetrators. There an important institution in the Igbo political system called the age-grade. The age-grade consisted of youngsters that belong to the same age-group. The senior age-group maintained peace and order in the village and also provided security to ward off external attacks, while the junior age-group concentrated on the sanitation of the community and other necessary duties, like going to fine some perpetrators that refused to comply pertaining their rules and regulations.  

The age-grade were also involved in the administration of the village, and as well acted as a check to the council of elders and other administrative bodies.
Another level in the Igbo political administration were the ‘Ozo‘title holders. This expensive title was conferred on wealthy and influential men in the community who after getting the title become recognized and could then preside over meetings with the village elders. Also, the  priests were not left out in the administration of the village. Great importance were attached to them for they were believed to be the mouthpiece of the gods e.g. Aro’s long juju. Even the council of elders consulted the priests on matters that were beyond their powers i.e. matters that needed spiritual intervention. Therefore, different institutions were doggedly involved in administering the Igbo community, and powers were equally shared among them.
we can conclude that the Igbo pre-colonial political system can be safely said to be similar to the modern Republican system of government in which the people are governed by their consent.

The political administrative structure of the Oyo Empire (Yoruba land)

The vast Oyo Empire was known to be the largest and the most powerful of all Yoruba empires.
Here is the pre-colonial political administration of the Oyo Empire:

THE ALAAFIN: The Alaafin was seen as the political head of the empire. He was chosen by the Oyomesi. It was claimed that he could only appear three times a year in public and that was only during some historical festivals or event.

THE AREMO: is the eldest son of the ruling Alaafin but cannot succeed his father at his demise. He can only help his father in the administrative system of the Empire.

THE OYOMESI: These are the seven hereditary kingmakers in the Oyo Empire. Their leader was Bashroun. Their duty was the installation of the new Alaafin when the time arises.

BAALE OR OBA: Each province was administered by Ajele or Oba. They guaranteed the payment of tribute and homage to the Alaafin. There was the claim that these rulers had the power to threaten any hardened Alaafin or chief by invoking the god of thunder and lightning through the cult of Sango, to a deified Alaafin.

THE ARMY (ESO): Are- ono kankanfo was the head of the army. Oyo had for long maintained a strong army that had been used in winning different wars. It was claimed that if the army should suffer any defeat, the Are- ona- kankanfo was to commit suicide or go on exile.

THE OGBONI SOCIETY: This society posse judicial powers and was involved also in policy making. The maintenance and preservation of the cultural values of the people were also delegated to them. They influence a lot of issues in the society.

THE THREE ENUCHES: are also involved in the administration of the Empire. Namely:

1. The Osi Efa: He was in charge of political affairs, who dies with the Alaafin and can also be called ‘Abobaku’.

2. The Ona Efa: meant for judicial purpose

3. The Otun Efa: functions for the religious duties of the Alaafin .

Based on what was known as the Yoruba history we can safely conclude that the Yoruba political system had a resemblance to the modern federal system of government.

Pre-colonial systems in Nigeria witnessed a lot of alterations at the advent from the British colonial masters. Several traditional rulers tried to protect and preserve their political organization of their kingdoms or empires but were overpowered by the British government and later gave up after much pressure and threat from the colonial masters. Colonialism had a great impact on every pre- colonial system in Nigeria, which has come to stay even till today.

The British conquest and Rule in Nigeria

The colonial period in Nigeria began with the slave trade in the 15th century. According to an article from The Commonwealth entitled "Nigeria: History," the Portuguese paved the way for the slave trade, and Nigeria was a big area of business for them. They sold slaves in order to obtain spices and weapons in other areas. However, the article written by John Edward Phillips entitled "What's New About African History?" states that the Nigerians themselves were the ones who provided the slaves. Tensions between different ethnic groups and tribes caused prisoners of war, so to speak, who would be sold to the Portuguese as slaves. For many Nigerians, this was their main source of income.

"Nigeria: History" also states that by the 18th century, the British had replaced the Portuguese as the leaders of the slave  trade business. According to Google Culture Institute's "Birth of the Nigerian Colony," British traders settled in Nigeria around this time in an area that surrounded the Niger River known as Lagos. The abolition of the slave trade was the key moment when the British truly “intervened in the region.” They placed their focus on obtaining goods to increase their ability to trade, as well as on converting the people of the area, which was previously heavily Muslim, to Christianity.

The British began their colonization of the area by slowly moving around the area and defeating different power heads in order to obtain more trading goods. According to an article written by Toyin Falola titled "Nigeria as a Colony," the British government gained control over the Royal Niger Company’s territories, and added on lower regions near the river to create the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. The British kept their control over Nigeria via indirect rule, which meant that local leaders would govern the area under orders of the British. This way, the British could profit from the economy of Nigeria that, because of their intervention, was based primarily on the export of different crops including palm oil, cacao, and peanuts, while also not getting in the way of ethnic tensions.

The British created “divide and rule policy” that could keep different Nigerian groups as far away from one another as possible. Further divisions among the country came about from the fact that “traditional authorities” led the north, and subsequently Islam resisted the spread of Christianity. The south, however, was home of a “political hierarchy” in which the British “ruled through those who were most malleable.” Here Christianity spread quickly, adding further tensions to the area by separating people in both religion and politics.

Basically, near the mid 20th century, many groups in Nigeria were fearful of gaining independence, for they knew the major ethnic groups would gain control of the new country. However, by 1960, Nigeria achieved its independence.

The following map shows 21st century Nigeria and the major ethnic groups that live within the country. Because the colonial powers drew national borders around so many different groups, the postcolonial history includes the struggle for power among various factions. To learn about other issues regarding Nigeria's population and government in the viewpoint of a Nigerian author

French and British Colonial Styles                                                                                                 

Africans were seen as being inferior to the British and their belief was that there is nothing good from the blacks and that was why many of them, encouraged racism. They believe that  the white is superior in nature and that no matter what the blacks becomes in life even act, speak and behave like the whites cannot be equated to them. Simply put it that the black men are not qualified to be rated as human. To the whites the blacks are kind of people from the jungle close to animal. If they are not rated as animal why where they sold as slaves to work for them any time any day whether they are sick or not. What they did to the Africans was man’s inhumanity to man.

The French, by comparison, were prepared to treat Africans as equals, but only if they learnt to speak French properly and adopted the values of French culture. If they reached a sufficient level of education Africans might be accepted as French citizens. To fall below the required level was to invite charges of racial inferiority.

France encouraged an increasing closeness with her colonies on the eve of independence and thereafter. Britain took the view that it would give limited support to its colonies as they moved into independence; for the British independence meant being independent of Britain.

At a military level, there was a continued reliance on African soldiers by the French. Senegalese soldiers continued to be in the French army after World War II. This stands in contrast with the British, who immediately demobbed African soldiers after the war. Acquiring the values and language of the French, brought opportunities and prospects for people in the French colonies.  The growing number of nationalists found this not enough for them.

Therefore, in the 1950's African delegates in the French National Assembly came together to form the Rassemblement Democratique Africain (RDA) under the leadership of Felix Houphouet-Boigny from the Cote d’Ivoire. Senghor broke with the RDA in 1948 and formed the Bloc Democratique Senegalais, or BDS. He was determined that Senegal should be the leading political force in that region. The 1960 independence came to most of the French colonies. In the same year Nigeria, the Gambia, Cameroun and Somalia became independent of British rule. Nigeria, because of its size and strong regional power bases, opted for a federal structure at independence.

Nationalist Movement

Herbert Macaulay became a very public figure in Nigeria, and on June 24, 1923, he founded the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), the first Nigerian political party in the history of the nation. The NNDP won all the seats in the elections of 1923, 1928 and 1933. In the 1930s, Macaulay took part in organizing Nigerian nationalist militant attacks on the British colonial government in Nigeria. The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) founded in 1933 by Professor Eyo Ita was joined in 1936 by Nnamdi Azikiwe that sought support from all Nigerians regardless of cultural background, and quickly grew to be a powerful political movement. In 1944, Macaulay and NYM leader Azikiwe agreed to form the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) (a part of Cameroon was incorporated into the British colony of Nigeria). Azikiwe increasingly became the dominant Nigerian nationalist leader, he supported pan-Africanism and a pan-Nigerian based nationalist movement.

Nigerian nationalism as at that time was a radical movement and grew in popularity and power in the post-World War II period when Nigeria faced undesirable political and economic conditions under British rule. The most prominent agitators for nationalism were Nigerian ex-soldiers who were veterans of World War II who had fought alongside British forces in the Middle East, Morocco, and Burma; another important movement that aided nationalism were trade union leaders. In 1945 a national general strike was organized by Michael Imoudu who along with order trade union figures became prominent nationalists.

However Nigerian nationalism by the 1940s was already facing regional and ethnic problems to its goal of promoting a united pan-Nigerian nationalism. Nigerian nationalism and its movements were geographically significant and important in southern Nigeria while a comparable Nigerian nationalist organization did not arrive in northern Nigeria until the 1940s. This regional division in the development and significance of Nigerian nationalism also had political implications for ethnic divide - southern Nigeria faced strong ethnic divisions between the Igbo and the Yoruba while northern Nigeria did not have strong internal divisions, this meant northern Nigeria that is demographically dominated by the Hausa was politically stronger due to its greater internal unity than that of southern Nigeria that was internally disunities. The south that was ethnically divided between the Igbo and the Yoruba, though the region most in favour of Nigerian nationalism; faced the north that was suspicious of the politics of the south, creating the North-South regional cleavage that has remained an important issue in Nigerian politics.

In 1960, Nigeria became an independent country. Azikiwe became the first President of Nigeria.

THE 1922 CONSTITUTION

The Clifford constitution of 1922, introduced the first electoral system in Nigeria. The first election was conducted into the legislative council with four slots: 3 for Lagos while 1 for Calabar. However, the election was based on limited franchise which restricted the election to those that earned a minimum of 100 pounds annually, which was very expensive for most Nigerians.

It also introduced a legislative council which replaced the Nigerian council. It consisted of 46 members with the governor as the head. Out of the 46, 23 were official members and 19 were unofficial members. The remaining four were elected as previously stated. However, the council could only legislate for the South. The governor legislated for the North via proclamation.

There was also an executive council; however, it had no Nigerians. It consisted of the governor, chief secretary, lieutenant governors, an administrator for Lagos, attorney – general, commandant of the Nigerian regiment,director of medical service, Comptroller general and Secretary for native affairs.

After Hugh Clifford, there were two other governors, Cameroon and Bernard Boudillion. They didn’t do much in terms of constitutional development. However, Boudilion divided Nigeria into East, West and North for administrative purposes. This was the bedrock for future regionalism.

THE RICHARDS CONSTITUTION

In 1944,  governor, Sir Arthur Richards took over from Clifford an provided a new proposal for constitutional amendment. This was as a result of pressure being mounted on him by the educated elite. They felt that the Clifford Constitution did not represent the indigenous population. Therefore, the governor introduced the constitution which had the following aims:

1.      To promote Nigeria’s unity

2.      To provide adequately within that desire for the diverse elements that make up the country

3.      To provide greater participation of Africans in the determination of their own affairs.

The constitution provided for a new legislative council, it had: The governor, 16 official members, and 28 unofficial members. Of the 28, two were nominated by the governor while 4 were elected. The North had 11 members; the West had 8 members while the East had 6 members. The elected 4 were from Lagos and Calabar. Also, the constitution made the council legislate for the whole country.

The constitution also provided for regional houses of assembly. The members of the regional assembly were nominated by the native authority. However, they weren’t legislative bodies. They were just grounds for discussing national issues. Also, it was from the house of assembly that members were nominated to the legislative council. The East and West had unicameral legislature while the North, in addition to a house of assembly, had a house of chiefs.

More so, the constitution reduced the amount of the limited franchise from 100 pounds to 50 pounds. This is considered as a plus because more people could vote and be voted for. However, it was still too expensive for most Nigerians. The executive council in Lagos also had for the first time, Nigerians. They were Sir Adeyemo Alakija and Bankole Rhodes.

Despite all these improvements compared to the Clifford constitution, the constitution still had some defects. First, it limited franchise to only Lagos and Calabar. Also, the money required for the right to vote was still too expensive for most Nigerians. Also, the regional houses of assemblies could not make laws; they were merely grounds for public discussion. The constitution also did not include the elites. This is because those nominated into the regional houses of assembly and the legislative council was nominated by the native authority.

MACPHERSON CONSTITUTION

Richard constitution was also criticized as not having the interest of all, it was felt that a new constitution was needed. The governor, Sir John Macpherson, not wanting to make the mistake his predecessor made, decided to include Nigerian in the constitutional making process. There was wide consultation of Nigerians even to the village levels. Also, there was the Ibadan conference of 1950. The result of all these was that it led to the creation of the Macpherson constitution.

The constitution provided for a federal legislature called the House of Representatives. It had 136 elected representatives, 6 ex-officio members and 6 nominated by the governor. 68 members were from the North, 34 from the West and 34 from the East.

It also provided for regional legislatures that could make laws for their regions. The legislatures in the West and North were bi-cameral, each having a house of chiefs alongside the regional legislature. In the East, it was a unicameral legislature. It was also from the regional legislatures that members were nominated to the legislative council.

LYTTLETON CONSTITUTION

Despite, the improvements in the Macpherson constitution, it could not keep Nigerians united. It collapsed soon due to problems from the legislature. In 1953, Anthony Enahoro of the A.G proposed on the floor of the house that Nigeria should be given independence in 1956. The Northerners, who felt they were not ready for independence, opposed the move for independence. They proposed that independence should be given ‘as soon as practicable’. This led to been booed in Lagos. This led to a riot in Kano in reaction to what happened in Lagos. Also, the North threatened to secede.

In order to calm things down, the then colonial secretary, Oliver Lyttleton called the leaders for a conference in London. Some issues were discussed during the conference and committees were set up. Their reports were to be considered in the Lagos conference of 1954. It was the conference that led to the Lyttleton constitution.

The constitutional conferences of 1953 and 1954 held in London and Lagos respectively gave birth to the Lyttleton constitution. The constitution fully introduced a federal system, with North, East, West and Southern Cameroons, whereas, the Federal capital territory was in Lagos.

Based on the recent development the West African court of appeal was abolished. There was a supreme court for Nigeria and individual high courts for the regions. However, the highest court of appeal was the judicial committee of the Privy Council. The Eastern and Western regions became self-governing in 1957 while the North became self-governing in 1959. Southern Cameroon through a referendum opted out of Nigeria.

THE INDEPENDENCE CONSTITUTION

On 1st October 1960, Nigeria became independent. This meant that Nigeria was a sovereign state independent of colonial influences. However, this was not fully the case. The Queen was still the head of state, even though, she was represented by a Nigerian in the person of Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe who was the Governor-General (head of government) while Tafawa Balewa was Prime minister (head of state).

The constitution was like the 1954 constitution but with minor changes. There was the inclusion of provisions for acquiring citizenship of the country. There was also included in the constitution provisions for the procedure for amendment of the constitution. Some Judges of the courts were appointed through nomination by the judicial service commission upon the assent of the Privy Council. The Privy Council was as at then the highest court of appeal in the country.

The constitution divided legislative powers between the center and the regional legislature. It made provisions for an exclusive legislative list. It also made provisions for a concurrent list. Items in the exclusive list were to be legislated by only the central legislature. Items in the concurrent list were to be legislated upon by the central legislature and the regional legislatures. Items not included in any of the lists were regarded as residual lists which were within the sole purview of the regional legislature.

It also provided for a dual executive. This meant that we had the Head of State and the Head of Government in two different people. The head of government was Nnamdi Azikiwe while the head of state was Tafawa Balewa. The head of state had only ceremonial functions while the head of government had executive powers. He was responsible for the day to day running of the activities of government. The constitution also provided for its supremacy. This was in contrast to the convention in a parliamentary system. In a parliamentary system they have parliamentary supremacy, not constitutional supremacy. However, due to the heterogeneous nature of Nigeria, the constitution had to be supreme in order to dissuade fears of domination of minority groups.

Even though, Nigeria was purported to have gained independence from the British, there were still some vestiges of imperialism in the independence constitution. One of them is that the queen was still the head of state, who was represented by a Nigerian. Also, the highest court of appeal was the judicial committee of the Privy Council in the House of Lords instead of the Nigerian Supreme court. It was due to these that a new constitution had to be made. This was the 1963 republican constitution that gave Nigeria their full right as a republic nation .