Lesson note POL 223 and Assignment 2019

Nigerian Foreign Policy (1 Credit) C (POL 223)

Course Content

v  The broad goals and development of Nigerian Foreign

v  Policy in historical sequence are examined

v  The influence of domestic and external factors on Nigerian Foreign policy at different

v  Periods of the process of foreign policy formulation and implementation.

Meaning of Foreign Policy

What is foreign Policy? We shall look at views from various authors about foreign policy.  Foreign Policy according to Modelski (1962) is the system of activities evolved by communities for changing the behavior of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the international environment (Obi, 2006). Another scholar known as Holsti, defined foreign Policy as “the actions of a state towards the external environment and the conditions usually domestic under which these actions are formulated” based on this, foreign policy cannot be formulated in a vacuum, it must has a root or base from the needs of the populace residing in a particular environment.

A country's foreign policy (also called the international relations policy) is a set of goals about how the country will work with other countries economically, politically, socially and militarily. Foreign policy also involves dealing with groups that are not countries but that are still important. These are called non-state actors, and might include religious groups, large companies, or even terrorist groups. The study of foreign relations is known as foreign policy analysis (FPA) and the work is called diplomacy. Most counties have a foreign minister who directs these things.

Foreign policy means the policy of nurturing and promoting one's national interest while interacting with other countries. Every country decides on the framework of its foreign policy and according to its principles, it takes decisions about how and what kind of transactions it would carry out with other nations

History of Nigerian Foreign Policy

Nigeria as a nation started participating in international politics as far back as 1954, when the colonial government transferred the powers over external relations to the Nigerian federal government. Even though it was not an absolute one as the Nigerian government was to be involved mainly in such relations which were entrusted to the federation by the majesty’s government in the United Kingdom from time to time. Their power as at that time was limited. They were restricted from performing certain official duties unless the order from the United Kingdom or from the Majesty.

According to Obi, in Ofegbu, (1990), that apart from the issue above restriction it has been observed that though Nigeria was given the go ahead order to operate her foreign relations from   1954;

This was not matched at that time with the creation of distinct administrative machinery to coordinate decisions and actions in these areas. What in fact happened was that the Chief Secretary who headed the domestic civil service incorporated external relations and defence into his schedule, whereas he lacked the staff, the specialist knowledge and the time lay a solid foundation for a future Ministry of External Affairs. Similarly, the Financial Secretary of the Federation took on responsibility for external trade. This began a practice whereby external economics and foreign trade became primary concerns of economic ministries and departments rather than those of the Ministry of External Affairs.(Obi, 2009)

The history of Nigerian Foreign Policy (N.F.P.)/(NFP) started as far back as 1st October 1960. Even though not   much attention or interest were shown by the Nigerian government concerning the FP , which is said to have been  inherited  from the colonial masters, who lacked interest on the people of Nigeria and Africa as a whole. Moreover, the first Prime Minister of Nigeria, Alhaji Tafawa Balewa in his Foreign Policy statement outlined the fundamental thrust of Nigerian foreign Policy as follows: 

1.      The sovereign equality of all African states

2.      Non-interference in international affairs of other African states

3.      Commitment to functional cooperation as a means of promoting African unity

4.      Total eradication of racism and colonialism from Africa(okolie in Agbu, 2008:6)

Since Nigeria's independence in 1960, Nigeria’s foreign policies have been characterized by focus on Africa as a regional power and by the attachment to several fundamental principles:

v  African unity and independence,

v  capability to exercise hegemonic influence in the region,

v  peaceful settlement of disputes,

v   non -alignment and non - intentional interference in the internal affairs of other nations,

v  and regional economic co-operation and development.

In carrying out these principles, Nigeria participates in the organization of African Unity (OAU) now African Union (AU), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), The Commonwealth and the United Nations

Generally, Nigeria’s foreign policy trends (the development and formulation) since 1960, has consistently been guided by the same principles and objectivity. Although while the main thrust of the country’s foreign policy;

v  The promotion of her national interest and

v  The policy of afro-centricity, which has remained present.

While the substance of Nigeria’s foreign policy remained largely the same from regime to regime. Nigeria’s foreign policy, however, witnessed various adjustments and modifications depending on the orientations of the political leaderships. In addition, the prevailing domestic (political, economic and socio-cultural realities) and international environments have been major determinants in Nigeria’s foreign policy trends over the years.

Africa as the Centerpiece of Nigeria's Foreign Policy is a concept that is premised on the understanding that Nigeria's engagement in the international system was seen as the binoculars of Africa. As Hon. Aja Wachukwu (Former Nigerian Diplomat) stated, 'charity begins at home and therefore any Nigerian foreign policy that does not take into consideration the peculiar position of Africa is unrealistic'. For the records, it’s the Adedeji Report of 1976 (Professor Adebayo Adedeji) that coined the concept: 'Africa as centre-piece'.

The issues that gave practical expression to this African-centeredness were the remnants of colonialism on the continent, apartheid in South Africa, liberation wars, ideological and proxy conflicts among others. Outside these politically pressing factors, the issue of a shared racial universe, of cultural neighbourhood, of shared historical experiences and the ideals of pan-Africanism further lubricated the wheels of this foreign policy conceptualization.

Under the framework of an Africa-centered foreign policy, Nigeria got involved deeply in the decolonization struggles in Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, and anti-apartheid struggles in South Africa and in the process earning for itself the appellation a 'frontline nation', even though she was geographically far removed from the theater of the struggles which was in the Southern African region. Nigeria is central to the formation of ECOWAS, has contained the breakdown of social order in Liberia, Sierra Leone, etc, through its world acknowledged peacekeeping expertise, and has provided economic life wire to less economically resourceful countries. In terms of proactive engagement with major socio-political and economic issues of continental importance in the last fifty one years, Nigeria tower far above any other African country

Since this phraseology appeared on the Nigeria foreign policy scene, it has continued to reproduce itself, like the ever recurring mathematical decimal. The foreign policy elite and political leadership of successive governments seems to be carried away by its philosophical allure rather than its rational ideation. In this sense, therefore, considerations of the economic benefaits, continental political leadership, national interests, and military partnerships and strategic engagements are sacrificed on the altar of good neighbourliness and psychological gratification. I need to make a comment on the issue of psychological gratification. This issue has to do with the psychological construction and mentality of Nigerians that verge on bigmanism, show-off and materialism. Beneath all these however, lies a massively gigantic emptiness and inferiority complex. Most often, the flagrant display of materialism among Nigerians is a product of psycho-social insecurity. Exported to the international arena, in this sense, Nigeria wants to present an image of a big brother image before the other African countries.

This reason accounts for why in spite of the huge financial expenditures and massive loss of human and material resources in the Liberian and Sierra Leone wars, for instance, Nigeria has not been able to reap any economic benefits. To date, one cannot tell one single Nigerian company involved in the post-conflict reconstruction activities going on in these two countries. What major economic niche has Nigeria carved for herself in these post-conflicts countries? There is hardly anything one can point finger towards. Yet, the Africa-centredness framework has continued to maintain a stronghold on Nigemazria’s foreign policy. The theories of concentric cycles and concert of medium powers all take their bearing from this perspective. In sum, the concept of Africa as a center piece of Nigeria foreign policy is also not grounded in considerations of economic growth and national development, and as such no matter how conceptually lush it may be, it remains substantially empty.

Since independence, with Jaja Wachuku as the first Minister of Foreign Affairs and Commons, later called External Affairs, Nigerian foreign policy has been characterized by a focus on Africa as a regional power and by attachment to several fundamental principles: African unity and independence; capability to exercise hegemonic influence in the region: peaceful settlement of disputes; non-alignment and non-intentional interference in the internal affairs of other nations; and regional economic cooperation and development. In carrying out these principles, Nigeria participates in the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Non-Aligned Movement, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the United Nations. There are many Nigerian organizations outside the country. Prominent among them is the Houston, Texas United States-based Nigerian Union Diaspora (NUD), which is the umbrella Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) for the economic and political empowerment of the people of Nigerian descent outside Nigeria.

 Upon gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria committed itself to improving the lives of the people of the country and harnessing the resources that remain vital to the economy of the country and her neighbours. By observing at what benefits and appropriate for the country, Nigeria became one of the founding members of the Organisation for African Unity (OAU), which later became the African Union. The Organisation for African Unity checks political stability of any African countries and encourages them to be holding regional meetings for the union. Nigeria backed the African National Congress (ANC) by taking a committed tough line with regard to the South African government and the ir military actions in southern Africa. Nigeria and Organisation for African Unity (OAU, now the African Union), has tremendous influence in West Africa nations and Africa on the whole. Nigeria has additionally founded regional cooperative efforts in West Africa, functioning as standard-bearer for ECOWAS and ECOMOG, economic and military organisations, respectively.

Similarly, when civil war broke out in Angola after the country gained independence from Portugal in 1975, Nigeria mobilised its diplomatic influence in Africa in support of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). That support helped tip the balance in their favour, which led to OAU recognition of the MPLA over the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola.

Nigeria extended diplomatic support to another cause, Sam Nujoma's Southwest Africa People's Organization in Namibia, to stall the apartheid South African-installed government there. In 1977, the new General Olusegun Obasanjo's military regime donated $20 million to the Zimbabwean movement against the apartheid government of Rhodesia. Nigeria also sent military equipment to Mozambique to help the newly independent country suppress the South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance guerrillas. Nigeria also provided some military training at the Kaduna first mechanized army division and other material support to Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe's guerrilla forces during the Zimbabwe War in 1979 against the white minority rule of Prime Minister Ian Douglas Smith, which was backed by the apartheid government of South Africa.

Due to mismanagement of her economy and technology, Nigeria announced that she was launching a nuclear programme of "unlimited scope" of her own but failed. After the Nigerian Independence in 1960, Nigeria demonstrated her seriousness in improving the economy for the people and embarked on nationalizing some multi-national companies that traded with and broke the economic/trade embargo of the apartheid South African regime, the local operations of Barclays Bank was nationalised after that bank ignored the strong protests by the Nigeria populace.

Nigeria also nationalised the British Petroleum (BP) for supplying oil to South Africa. In 1982, the Alhaji Shehu Shagari government urged the visiting Pontiff Pope John Paul II to grant audience to the leaders of Southern Africa guerrilla organisations Oliver Tambo of the ANC and Sam Nujoma of SWAPO. In December 1983, the new Major General Muhammadu Buhari regime announced that Nigeria could no longer afford an apartheid government in Africa.

Components of Foreign Policy

Foreign policy constitutes numerous factors and some forces, of which some of the factors are natural and also manmade. Others are permanent and also temporary. All these mentioned are what comprises the components of foreign policy, which determines the factors that conditions the foreign policy of states.

Obi, according to Brecher, (1972), outlined geography, external and global environment, Personalities (Elite images), economic, military position and public opinion as the major components of foreign policy. Furthermore, Rosenau (1976), differed a bit in his own components, he listed size, geography, economic development, culture and history, great power structure alliances, technology, social structure, moods of opinion, political accountability, governmental structure, situational factors (both external and internal).

Some of the factors briefly explained  

1. Geographical Situation: this characterizes size, topography, shape and climate. The geographical location of country determines its defense policies. Any country that is surrounded with enemy or hostile neighbors should have a policy based on how to contain them either through beefing up their military power or through military alliances.

2. Military Power: the military strength of every nation is very important while because it influences its foreign policy. Other nation’s fears and respect countries that have military might why because they are equal to every task. In terms of matching and engaging in war they are covered and can play international politics successfully. Obi, according to Morganthau (1952) stated that the dynamic force which molds international relations is to be found in the states drive for power.

3. Economic Power: this has to do with the availability of natural resources which helps to determine the foreign policy of a state. It is expected that every nation must engage in trade with other countries to advertise what they have and what they need from their counterpart. Trade helps in showcasing nation’s economic interest in terms of transactions in boosting the economy.

4. Population: the population of every country determines its respect and role in determining its foreign policy. Nigeria as the giant of Africa is considered greatly not in terms of military might but in commanding great population. Other nations may be known not by their wealth but by their population and size which as well count in their military might.

5. Public Opinion: no country in a democratic dispensation can do away with the public opinion. It counts a lot or is taking into consideration by the government in formulating foreign policy objectives in order to gain support from the masses and also granting their wishes. Sometimes, pressure groups can champion public opinion that favours their own interest and compel the government or influences them into doing some policy that is their wishes.

6. Technology: this has to do with the use of science in industry, engineering etc. , to invent useful things or to solve problems (Merriam-Webster). The foreign policy of every nation cannot do without science and technology. Today China is respected not because of their population but the way they turned the world around with science and technology. This has boosted their economy and in the international politics/relations they held their voice so high, as such no critical matter can be decided without involving them. It is expected that national interest of every nation must have focus in technology.

Many scholars and diplomats have attempted to “demonstrate that the various constituent elements in the political system of the government, the political parties, pressure groups, the civil service, the political and bureaucratic elites, public opinion, and the press operating within the democratic process provided by the constitution, exert direct or indirect influence in shaping a country’s FP. It is in line with this assertion that argued that Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) countries have to constantly reorient their foreign policies to reflect or accommodate domestic and external vicissitudes. According to Idang, Akinyemi, Gambari and Aluko perspectives in analyzing Nigerian FP focused exclusively on limited goals. Idang (1986) focused on the impacts of institutions and social forces, like parliament, political parties and FP elites. Akinyemi on the other hand conducted a dissectional examination of the nature and character of the administrative structure in the FP process when subjected to other “pressures” of Domestic Structure, particularly political parties and attitudes of political elites.

In the words of Gambari he argues that the domestic political structure and process are of great impact on the nature and character of Nigerian FP because they serve as the channel for internalization of the international environment and events, thus making them intelligible and of value to the participants in domestic political roles.  Aluko (1976) on his view embarked on the imperative to resolve the impact of colonial heritage and the formative experience of the leadership. Other studies have focused on the evolution of Nigerian FP by demonstrating how “internal pressures” both of administrative structure and of the society as well as how organizations really affect FP formulation.

A country’s FP is determined by two broad factors: the domestic and the external environment. The domestic environment includes geographical location of the state, its peculiarity, natural and human resources, the nature of the political system, quality of leadership, the nature of the interaction among groups in the society.  Domestic environmental factors have great impact on the policy making of a country. It is worthy to note that the Foreign Policy of any country is a product of environmental factors both internal and external, the strength of a particular domestic factor in influencing a particular Foreign Policy depends heavily domestic environment.

Domestic environment determines the role a nation plays in the international system. The DS plays a crucial role in the way actions of other states are interpreted. The following factors: political development, economy, the press, public opinion and pressure groups as been central in the examination of the FP response of Nigeria towards other nation

The constitutional provisions of the Nigerian government allowed the regions of the federation to facilitate their own foreign policies, allow regional delegations to be sent abroad to negotiate loans and other forms of assistance for their regions as evident in a Western Regional delegation  

          Reasons for Africa as the Centerpiece of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy

v  Developing programmes for possible assistance to other African countries

v  Fostering understanding among other African nations

v  The belief in the sovereignty and equality of African states

v  Working towards de-colonization of African continents under colonial rule

v  Respect for non-interference in the domestic affairs of other African states

v  To support the then struggle against apartheid policy and its eradication in South Africa

v  Promoting friendly association among independent African states

             Adoption of Africa as the Centerpiece of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy

v  Ideological rivalries: To remind Nigerians of the ideological rivalries that has penetrated Africa, to pursue and to unite African efforts in preventing Africa from becoming the theatre of world crises.

v  Inter-territorial communication: To co-operate with African states for an improved inter-territorial communication and transport facilities of the continent.

v  Decolonization of African states: Nigeria made Africa the centerpiece of her foreign policy because of the refusal of some colonial masters to grant independence to some African territories under the colonial rule.

v  Location: Geographically, Nigeria is located in Africa and it is natural that African states should first receive Nigeria’s attention before other states of the world.

v  Assistance: To provide assistance to other African states and foster understanding among them

v  Friendly association: To help in promoting friendly association, unity of purpose among independent African states.

v  Opposition to aggression: To oppose any form of aggression and support the demand for the restoration of fundamental human rights in Africa.

Measures taken by Nigerians in Maintaining a Friendly Relationship with African States

v  Participating actively in economic union

v  Being first in initiation of peaceful settlement of crises among African countries

v  The advocate for Peaceful resolution of disputes with their neighbouring countries

v  Bi-lateral economic/political relationships are being established

v  Participation in peace keeping operations in Africa

v  They promote multi-lateral economic relationship with African countries

Plan of action adopted by one nation in regards to its diplomatic dealings with other countries. Foreign policies are established as a systematic way to deal with issues that may arise with other countries.

In geography and politics, a country is a political division. Some of the best known countries are Germany, China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. There are 196 of them in the world, or 195 if Taiwan is not counted as a country.

Most countries in the world are sovereign states, meaning they are independent of each other. The term is most commonly used as both a state and a nation. 193 of the world's countries are part of the United Nations, which recognizes lots of countries and other dependent territories.

  Nigeria's Foreign Policy at different Periods  

v  The Balewa era- ( 1960-66)

v  Crises and civil war period (Gowon period, 1960-70)

v  Post-war eras of the 3Rs- Reconstruction, Reconciliation and Rehabilitation

v  Gowon era (1970-75)

v  The Muritala Obasanjo era (1975-79)

v  The second republic era (1979-83)

v  The Buhari/Idiagbon era (1983-85)

v  The Babangida era (1985-93)

v  The Shonekan/Abacha era (1993-June 98)

v  The Abubakar era (June 1998-May 1999)

v  Each of the regimes operated according to the prevailing domestic or national and international environment including the goals set by each of the leaders.

Names of External Affairs Ministers that played crucial roles in Nigeria's Foreign Policies

2. Dr Jaja Nwachuku (1961–1965)
3. Alhaji Nuhu Bamalli (1965–1966)
4. Yakubu Gowon (1966–1967)
5. Dr Arikpo Okoi (1967–1975)
6. Joseph Nanven Garba (1975–1978)
7. Henry Adefope (1978–1979)
8. Ishaya Audu (1979–1983)
9. Emeka Anyaoku (1983)
10. Ibrahim Gambari (1984–1985)
11. Professor Bolaji Akinyemi (1985–1987)
12. Major General Ike Nwachukwu (1987–1989)
13. Alahaji Rilwan Lukman (1989–1990)
14. Major General Ike Nwachukwu (1990–1993)
15. Matthew Mbu (1993)
16. Babagana Kingibe (1993–1995)
17. Tom Ikimi (1995–1998)
18. Ignatius Olisemeka (1998–1999)
19. Sule Lamido (1999–2003)
20. Oluyemi Adeniji (2003–2006)
21. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala (2006)
22. Joy Ogwu (2006–2007)
23. Ojo Maduekwe (2007–2010)
24. Martin Ihoeghian Uhomoibhi (Supervising) (2010)
25. Henry Odein Ajumogobia (2010–2011)
26. Olugbenga Ashiru (2011–2013)
27. Viola Onwuliri (Supervising) (2013–2014)
28. Aminu Bashir Wali (2014–2015)
29. Geoffrey Onyeama (2015–present)

Present Nigeria’s Foreign Affairs Minister is Geoffrey Jideofor Kwusike Onyeama. He was appointed for the position in 2015 by President Muhammadu Buhari.

The appropriate governmental institution for the conduct of foreign Policy is the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Others for the making and implementation of Foreign Policy include:

1. Ministry of Defence
2. Ministry of Finance
3. Ministry of Petroleum Resources
4. Ministry of Economic Development
5. The Presidency and National Assembly
6. Nigerian institute of international Affairs
7. Nigerian institute of Policy and Strategic studies (okolie, 2009)

Formulation of Nigerian Foreign Policy

The incumbent president is technically responsible for formulating Nigeria’s Foreign Policy

v  Consultations: Consultations are made with Nigeria’s diplomats abroad, experts in the universities, the business community, leaders of thought, etc. before taking decisions.

v  The minister and the ministry of external affairs: The presidency is assisted in policy formulation by the minister and officials of the ministry of external affairs as well as experts at Nigeria’s Institute of International Affairs.

v  The National Assembly: They are in charge of making laws for the country and part of these laws includes foreign relation matters. This is found in Nigerian constitution which stipulates in terms of implementation of treaties which is contained in sections 12(1)12 (2) & 12(3).

v  Clear and practical policies: Adoption of clear and practical policies regarding Africa with view to bringing about co-operation and progress to all African states.

v  Friendship and co-operation: The country maintains friendship and co-operation with other nations of the world that respect their territorial sovereignty.

v  Independence of African states: Helping non-independent African states to achieve total independence confirming the statement that Africa is the centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy.

v  Respect for territorial integrity: Nigeria has respect for other states based on the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of other states.

v  Peaceful resolution of crises: Joining other states to find peaceful resolution to crisis in ECOMOG, troops in Liberia, Sierra-Leone, etc.

The Primary responsibilities of Foreign Affairs Ministry include:

i.                    Establishment and administration of Nigeria’s diplomatic and consular ports

ii.                  Conduct of government business in the legislative relating to Foreign and Commonwealth relations

iii.                Training of Nigerians overseas representation

iv.                Emigration

v.                  Relations with diplomatic corps in Nigeria

vi.                Consular matters affecting Nigerians outside Nigeria

vii.              Passport, travel certificates etc (Okolie, 2009, in Chibundu, 2003:25-26 )

Assignment 2019 POL 223 Second Semester

To be submitted on Thursday deadline Friday 25th and 26th

1.       What do you understand by national interest?

2.       At this critical time when things has fallen apart in Nigeria what do you think would be their national interest?

Instruction: Sate your ideas with detailed explanation not less than 10 points. Use 20 leaves preferably.