SOCIAL
INTERACTION IN NIGERIA (3credit unit)
Course
content/outline
Social
interaction in Nigeria 1500 – 1800 (Grassland zone)
1500
– 1800 (Forest Zone). Political Systems
in Pre-colonial Nigeria.
Social
Interactions in Nigeria 1914 – 1960
What is interaction?
In sociology, social interaction
is a dynamic, changing sequence of social actions between individuals or
groups.
i.
A social
interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals and is a building
block of society. Social interaction can be studied between groups of two
(dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.
ii.
By
interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems
within which they seek to live. Symbols are used to communicate the
expectations of a given society to those new to it.
iii.
In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic
sequence of social actions between individuals (or groups) who modify their
actions and reactions due to actions by their interaction partner(s). Social
interactions can be differentiated into accidental, repeated, regular and
regulated.
Types of social Interaction
Among the most common forms of social interaction are exchange, competition, conflict, cooperation, and accommodation.
These five types of interaction take place in
societies throughout the world. Whenever people interact in an effort to receive a reward or a return for
their actions, an exchange has taken place.
Exchange Social exchange theory argues that people form relationships
because they determine that it is in their best interests to do so. In forming
relationships, people exchange goods and services (including emotional support
and interaction). People stay in relationships when they believe that the
exchange is beneficial. Social exchange theory is rooted in rational choice
theory. Individuals
evaluate the worth of an action by subtracting the costs from the rewards.
Competition is a contest between people or groups of people for control
over resources. In this definition, resources can have both literal and
symbolic meaning. People can compete over tangible resources like land, food,
and mates, but also over intangible resources, such as social capital.
Competition is the opposite of cooperation and arises whenever two parties
strive for a goal that cannot be shared.
Conflict
Social
conflict is the struggle for agency or power within a society to gain control
of scarce resources. Conflict theory argues that conflict is a normal and
necessary part of social interaction. In other words, conflict is seen as part
of the social landscape rather than an anomaly. According to the theory,
conflict is motivated by pursuit of personal interests. All individuals and
groups are interested in gaining control over scarce resources, and this leads
to conflict. Once one party gets control of resources, that party is unlikely
to release them. The Matthew Effect is the idea that those in control will
remain in control.
Matthew Effect:
The idea that those who have control will maintain control.
Zero Sum Game:
The idea that if group A acquires any given resource, group B will be unable to
acquire it.
Social Conflict:
The struggle for agency or power within a society.
Social
conflict is the struggle for agency or power within a society. It occurs when
two or more people oppose one another in social interactions, reciprocally
exerting social power in an effort to attain scarce or incompatible goals, and
prevent the opponent from attaining them.
Conflict
theory emphasizes interests deployed in conflict, rather than the norms and values.
This perspective argues that the pursuit of interests is what motivates
conflict. Resources are scarce and individuals naturally fight to gain control
of them. Thus, the theory sees conflict as a normal part of social life, rather
than an abnormal occurrence. The three tenets of conflict theory are as
follows:
- Society is composed of
different groups that compete for resources.
- While societies may portray a
sense of cooperation, a continual power struggle exists between social
groups as they pursue their own interests.
- Social groups will use
resources to their own advantage in the pursuit of their goals, frequently
leading powerful groups to take advantage of less powerful groups.
Conflict
theory relies upon the notion of a zero sum game, meaning that if group A
acquires any given resource, group B will be unable to acquire it. Thus, any
gain for group A is automatically a loss for group B. Conflict theory further
argues that group A will continue to search for resources in order to keep
group B from getting them, leading to the exploitation of the powerless. The
idea that those who have control will maintain control is called the Matthew
Effect.
According
to the principles of conflict theory, all cooperation is only for the purpose
of acquiring individual or group resources. This motivation for behavior
restructures day-to-day interactions among people in a given society.
War: War is the classic example of conflict: one army is
attempting to maintain control of resources (land, weapons, morale) so that the
other army cannot have them.
Cooperation
is the process of two or more people
working or acting in concert. There are three types of cooperation (coerced,
voluntary and unintentional) and why cooperation is necessary for social
reality. Cooperation can be coerced, voluntary, or unintentional. Communication
is necessary for cooperation. Cooperation derives from an overlap in desires
and is more likely if there is a relationship between the parties.
Unintentional
Cooperation: It is a form of cooperation in
which individuals do not necessarily intend to cooperate, but end up doing so
because of aligning interests.
Voluntary
Cooperation: It is cooperation to which all
parties consent.
Coerced
Cooperation: It is when cooperation between
individuals is forced.
Cooperation
in Politics: Without cooperation, Congress
would be unable to create any laws.
Accommodation
The term
‘accommodation’ is derived from experimental psychology, where it denotes how
individuals modify their activity to fit the requirements of external social
world. Although accommodation has its origin in conflict situation, still it is
radically different type of interaction.
Accommodation
is a form of social interaction in which we get used to the factors that are
likely to lead to conflict either by force of habit, or sheer inertia, or a
desire to ‘live and let live’. It simply means adjusting oneself to the new
environment.
According
to Gillin and Gillin (1948), ‘accommodation is the term used by sociologists to
describe a process by which competing and conflicting individuals and groups
adjust their relationships to each other in order to overcome the difficulties
which arise in competition, contravention or conflict’.
From the above description, we
may sum up the characteristics of accommodation as follows:
1.
It is the natural result of conflict (Park and Burgess, 1921). Even if conflict
disappears as an overt action, it remains latent as a potential.
2.
It is a universal process.
3.
It is a continuous process. It changes with the changing environment.
4.
It is a state in which the attitudes of love and hate coexist (Ogburn and
Nimkoff, 1958).
5.
It is generally and subconscious process.
6.
It is an agreement to disagree (Jones, 1949).
Importance of
Social Interaction
1.
Given opportunity for social
interactions with others is very important for the development of all children.
2.
As children engage in social
interactions, they begin to establish a sense of “self” and to learn what
others expect of them. Although social interactions for very young children
primarily occur within the family, as children grow and develop, they become
more and more interested in playing and interacting with other children.
3.
As children plays with others, they
learn appropriate social behaviors, such as sharing, cooperating, and
respecting the property of others.
4.
Furthermore, while interacting with
their peers, young children learn communication, cognitive, and motor skills.
Most opportunities for social interactions among young children occur during
play. This opportunity to play with others is critical if a child is to develop
appropriate social skills.
Children are advised to play with their
peers not minding whether they are deformed or not. No child should be left out
in terms of interacting with their peers as it is necessary in their
upbringing.
5 reasons social interaction is important for
learning for students.
·
Help students
manage conversations better
·
Help students
refine their ideas
·
Interactions
provide the raw material needed for language development
·
Help students
gain control of language
·
People develop
their second language when they feel good about themselves and about their
relationships with those around then in various courses
·
Student
develops when the learner focuses on accomplishing something together with
other rather than focusing on the course itself.
5 ways that group work facilitates social
interaction and learning
·
Group work
increases language practice opportunities.
·
Group work
improves the quality of student talk.
·
Group work
helps individualize instruction.
·
Group work
promotes a positive affective climate.
·
Group
work motivates learners.
NATURE OF
AND APPROACHES TO SOCIAL INTERACTION
NATURE
OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
Social Interaction refers to the process by which people mutually or
reciprocally influence one another's attitudes, feelings, and actions. This is
the lie between the individual and society. This process is called “negotiated interaction.
There are three
situations for social interaction: Person to person (P to P). Person to group
(P to G). Group to group (G to G).
Approaches to social Interaction literature on social interaction
gives the following approaches to a better understanding of social interaction:
Symbolic Interaction – it refers to the communication of thoughts and feelings
between individuals that occurs by means of symbols – such as us words,
gestures, facial expressions and sounds.
Specific approaches under symbolic interaction include:
1. Definition of
the Situation – it refers to the sociological perspective that views the
people attribute to a social setting; a stage of mental examination and
deliberation in which we size up a situation so as to devise our course of
action. This process is called “negotiated interaction”
2. Dramaturgy – it is a sociological
perspective that views social interaction as resembling a theatrical performance
in which people stage their behavior in such a way as to elicit the responses
they desire from other people.
3. Ethno
methodology – it is a sociological perspective that studies the procedures
people use to make sense of their everyday lives and experience. These
procedures are the taken for granted, routine activities of our daily lives and
the understandings that lie behind them – it comes from the Greek word “ethnos”
meaning “folk” or “people”, methodology refers to the procedures used in doing
something. 4. Social exchange – it is a sociological perspective that portrays
interaction as a more or less straightforward and rationally calculated series
of mutually beneficial transactions. For more information log onto this website
The nature and structure of the indigenous economies
of the people of Nigeria between 1500 and 1800 AD
Agricultural production
relied totally on availability of suitable land and labour. One important point
to note is the land-labour ratio. The land was vast but the people were few.
One of the explanations for this was the Trans-Sahara trade and on a much
greater scale, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade in which millions of Nigerians
were forced out of the region. The result is that land became more abundant in
relation to population than it would normally gave been. The abundance of land
had an important consequence. It allowed a system of cultivation that did not
encourage restrictive use of land. The system is the shifting cultivation which meant a shift from an already cultivated
land that was becoming less productive to a virgin piece of land or land that
had been left fallow for years to regain its nutritive values. Given the
situation as it existed in the pre-colonial era, shifting cultivation was
perhaps the most effective method that was devised for the maintenance of soil
fertility and the eventual regular good.
Traditional
Factors of Production of Nigerian Economy (1500-1800)
As at that time the
factors of production were land, capital, labour, and entrepreneurship this is
within the context of indigenous economy of Nigeria between 1500 and 1800 AD
Land
was in abundance as at that time. Land was the survival of agriculture
agro-allied production and other allied. The aspect of land that is a factor of
production is concerned with land tenure system. Among some
tribes like Yoruba and the Tiv their land belongs to various lineages or small
communities. Members of each lineage did not own specific pieces of land but
rather use any piece of land as long as it was left fallow and did not contain
perennial crops. They are also free to move about within the communities in
search of land in order to take advantage of the best soil. Therefore the right
of an individual to farm was inalienable and if problems arise as a result of
land the head of the lineage settles the matter.
Labour
as
at that time land was not a constraint on development but labour. This is
because the supply of labour was inadequate that land did not constitute a
chaos. There was also labour shortage which was as a reflection of the
prevalent low life expectancy. We can state here emphatically that infant
mortality rate was high, short life span, poor health care and that most of the
strong and women were carted away in millions by the slave trade. This becomes
fashionable and desirable for keeping large families. The desire for men as at
that time was to have many children therefore promoting polygamy to use their
laobour for planting and harvesting.
Therefore, family
labour was convenient for them because it was relatively readily available, and
could be easily managed and disciplined. Furthermore, slave labour force was
employed to carter for the shortage of labour. At that time slaves were used
for labour forces in the sense that the production of palm oil, groundnut,
coffee, cocoa and minerals were handled by them. Apart from household and slave labour forces there was
other ways to carry out economic activities like the age- group or labour
societies that organize reciprocal system of getting things done. Ordinarily
this was an arrangement known by the Yoruba land as owe or aro, and for the Igbos they name their age grade to their
eldest or the leader for instance ogbo
okoye age grade or ndi ogbo okeke and so on, their aim was that job could
be done quickly or faster when two or more friends joined hands to work in a
group. They apply this to other type of work not only farming. It was also this
method they apply in erecting houses for public works, path construction or
clearing the village premises, constructions of town halls etc. This type of
communal labour is what was used as at then and each time there will be a
particular work to be done each lineage will be required to contribute a number
of workers to facilitate easy and quick job for the benefit of all.
Capital
un
like labour that are so highly demanded although in short supply, capital was
said to be scarce and not highly demanded. Some of the things that served as
capital were: the farmers seedlings which was used for future planting besides
there was no standard currency as at then, there was the existence of
substitute currency such as: iron rod, rolls, of cloth, bottles of gins, and
other forms of commodity currency which presented complex problems of
conversion and divisibility. Cowries was also employed, others were possession
of horses. Camels, houses, ornaments while the Igbos used Ackies,
manila, copper rods, and brass rods
etc., all these served as capital.
Entrepreneurship
as
at 1500-1800 the entrepreneurs were the
rulers, chiefs, potentates, war chiefs and other influential men and women who
had enough wealth and power to mobilize other factors of production. These
people have control over land, labour and capital. They also are decision
makers and employers. As at this time Nigeria was growing at their pace things
were normal and they even transact business with the white men who purchases
local product in exchange of what they have like dry gin or other foreign
things that are not in possession of the natives.
FOR
MORE INFORMATION VISIT:
Social
Interaction in Nigeria 1500 – 1800 (Grassland zone)
Nigeria the Savanna States, 1500-1800
The
sixteenth century marked a high point in the political history of northern
Nigeria. During this period, the Songhai Empire reached its greatest limits,
stretching from the Senegal and Gambia rivers in the far west and incorporating
part of Hausa land in the east. At the same time, the Sayfawa Dynasty of Borno
asserted itself, conquering Kanem and extending its control westward to Hausa
cities that were not under Songhai imperial rule. For almost a century, much of
northern Nigeria was part of one or the other of these empires, and after the
1590s Borno dominated the region for 200 years.
Songhai's
sway over western Hausa land included the subordination of Kebbi, whose kanta
(king) controlled the territory along the Sokoto River. Katsina and Gobir also
paid tribute to Songhai, while Songhai merchants dominated the trade of the
Hausa towns. It was at this time that the overland trade in kola nuts from the
Akan forests of modern Ghana was initiated. Largely because of Songhai's
influence, there was a remarkable blossoming of Islamic learning and culture.
The
influence of Songhai collapsed abruptly in 1591, when an army from Morocco
crossed the Sahara and conquered the capital city of Gao and the commercial
center of Timbuktu. Morocco was not able to control the whole empire, and the
various provinces, including the Hausa states, became independent. The co1`llapse
undermined Songhai's commercial and religious hegemony over the Hausa states
and abruptly altered the course of history in the region.
Borno
reached its apogee under mai Idris Aloma (ca. 1569-1600), during whose
reign Kanem was re - conquered. As a result of his campaigns, several Hausa
cities, including Kano and Katsina, became tributaries. The destruction of
Songhai left Borno uncontested as an imperial force, and during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries Borno continued to dominate the political history of
northern Nigeria. Now Borno became the center of Islamic learning and trade.
Its capital at Birni Gazargamu, on the Komadugu Yobe River that flows eastward
into Lake Chad, was well situated in the midst of a prosperous agricultural district.
Textile production was a mainstay of its economy. Borno also controlled
extensive salt deposits, which supplied its most important export to the west
and south. These reserves were located at Bilma and Fachi in the Sahara, in the
districts of Mangari and Muniyo adjacent to Birni Gazargamu, and on the
northeastern shores of Lake Chad.
Despite
Borno's hegemony, the Hausa states wrestled for ascendancy among themselves for
much of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Gobir, Katsina, Zamfara, Kano,
Kebbi, and Zaria formed various alliances, but only Zamfara ceased to exist as
an autonomous state, falling to Gobir in the eighteenth century. Borno
collected tribute from Kano and Katsina, and its merchants dominated the trade
routes that passed through Hausaland. Gradually, however, Borno's position
began to weaken. Its inability to check the political rivalries of the
competing Hausa cities was one example of this decline. Another factor was the
military threat of the Tuareg, whose warriors, centered at Agades in the center
of present-day Nigeria, penetrated the northern districts of Borno. They even
diverted the salt trade of Bilma and Fachi from Birni Gazargamu. Tuareg
military superiority depended upon camels, which also were used to transport salt
and dates to the savanna.
The
major cause of Borno's decline was a severe drought and famine that struck the
whole Sahel
(see Glossary) and savanna from Senegal to Ethiopia in the middle of the
eighteenth century. There had been periodic droughts before; two serious
droughts, one of seven years' duration, hit Borno in the seventeenth century.
But the great drought of the 1740s and 1750s probably caused the most severe famine
that the Sahel has known over the past several hundred years, including that of
the 1970s. As a consequence of the mid-eighteenth century drought, Borno lost
control of much of its northern territories to the Tuareg, whose mobility
allowed them the flexibility to deal with famine conditions through war and
plunder. Borno regained some of its former might in the succeeding decades, but
another drought occurred in the 1790s, again weakening the state.
The
ecological and political instability of the eighteenth century provided the
background for the momentous events of the first decade of the nineteenth
century, when the jihad of Usman dan Fodio revolutionized the whole of northern
Nigeria. The military rivalries of the Hausa states and the political weakness
of Borno put a severe strain on the economic resources of the region, just at a
time when drought and famine undermined the prosperity of farmers and herders.
Many Fulani moved into Hausa land and Borno at this time to escape areas where
drought conditions were even worse, and their arrival increased tensions
because they had no loyalty to the political authorities, who saw them as a
source of increased taxation. By the end of the eighteenth century, some Muslim
clerics began to articulate the grievances of the common people. Political
efforts to eliminate or control these clerics only heightened the tensions.
https://workmall.com/wfb2001/nigeria/nigeria_history_the_savanna_states_1500_1800.html
Source: The Library of Congress Country Studies
Source: The Library of Congress Country Studies
No comments:
Post a Comment
add