Pre-colonial Political
Administrations in Nigeria
The Hausas and their Political
System
THE
KANEM-BORNU EMPIRE
The
first well documented state in the northern region was the kingdom of Kanem
Bornu, which emerged east of Lake Chad in what is now southwestern Chad by the
9th century ad. Kanem
profited from trade ties with North Africa and the Nile Valley, from which it
also received Islam. The Saifawas, Kanem’s ruling dynasty, periodically
enlarged their holdings by conquest and marriage into the ruling families of
vassal states. The empire, however, failed to sustain a lasting peace. During
one conflict-ridden period sometime between the 12th and 14th centuries, the
Saifawas were forced to move across Lake Chad into Bornu, in what is now far
northeastern Nigeria. There, the Kanem intermarried with the native peoples,
and the new group became known as the Kanuri. The Kanuri state centered first
in Kanem and then in Bornu, known as the
Kanem-Bornu Empire, hereafter referred to as Bornu.
The Kanuri eventually
returned to Chad and conquered the empire lost by the Saifawas. Its dominance
thus assured, Bornu became a flourishing center of Islamic culture that rivaled
Mali to the far west. The kingdom also grew rich in trade, which focused on
salt from the Sahara and locally produced textiles. In the late 16th century,
the Bornu king Idris Alooma expanded the kingdom again, and although the full
extent of the expansion is not clear, Bornu exerted considerable political
influence over Hausa land to the west. In the mid- and late 18th century,
severe droughts and famines weakened the kingdom, but in the early 19th century
Bornu enjoyed a brief revival under al-Kanemi, a shrewd military leader who
resisted a Fulani revolution that swept over much of Nigeria. Al-Kanemi’s
descendants continue as traditional rulers within Borno State. By 1830 the Fulani were masters of most of
what was the Northern Region of Nigeria. Only Borno, Parts of Kebbi and Gobir,
the hill areas of the Jos Plateau and the Tiv and the Idoma did not come under
their control. The Kanem-Bornu Empire
ceased to exist in 1846 when it was absorbed into the Wadai sultanate to the
east.
Furthermore, after the great Jihad
war (1804-1810) led by Usman Dan Fodio, the former fourteen Hausa states were merged and then divided
into two caliphates. The eastern caliphate which included states like Yola,
Gombe, Kano, Zaria and Katsina had Sokoto as its capital territory while the
western caliphate, including Ilorin, Argungun and Kontagora had Gwandu as its
capital city. Usman Dan Fodio became the head (Sarkin Muslim) of the whole
Hausa land while the control of Sokoto (eastern) and Gwandu (western)
caliphates went to Bello, Usman Dan Fodio’s son and Abdullah, Usman Dan Fodio’s
brother respectively for more information about Dan Fodio visit (https://oldnaija.com/2016/02/04/usman-dan-fodio-1754-1817/)
Moreover, the Sokoto and Gwandu
caliphates were sub divided into emirates for easy administration. Each emirate
was headed by an Emir who was appointed from two or three ruling families with
the approval of the Emir of Sokoto or Gwandu, depending on the emirate who were
in charge of the selection. These lesser Emirs were responsible to the Emirs of
Sokoto and Gwandu respectively.
However, in each emirate, the Emir
was assisted by some officials who were assigned to certain duties. These
officials included, the Waziri who was the administrative
officer or prime minister; the Galadima who was in charge of the
capitals; the Madawaki who was the commander of the army; the Dogari
who was the head of the police; Yari
is regarded as the head of prison
(chief superintendent of Prison); the Maaji the treasurer; the Sarkin
Ruwa the river fishing official; the Sarkin Fada who was
responsible for the administration of the palace; and the Sarkin Pawa the head of
all butchers. All these officials, who were appointed by the Emir, were
consulted in running the day to day affairs of the emirate. This can be said to
be a similarity to the Yoruba
political administration, but
unlike a Yoruba kingdom, power was centralized in the hands of the Emir who had
absolute control over these officials and could depose or dethrone any of them
at his will (
Each emirate was further divided
into districts which were headed by an official known as Hakimi. The Hakimi is appointed by the Emir to
oversee the affairs of each district which included maintaining peace and order
and collection of taxes like Jangali - (cattle tax), Jizyah - (land tax) and Zakat
- which is the tax on moveable object meant for helping the poor, other
commonest taxes were: Lizya - the tax collected from the
slaves, strangers and alien., Kharaj is a general tax levied on
farm yield or production. The Hakimi
was however assisted in carrying out these functions by the village heads whom
he appoints by himself. The Hakimi and
the village heads were not paid salary but were entitled to retain some fixed
proportions of the taxes and tributes while they forward the rest or remaining
to the Emir.
The judicial administration of Hausa
land was based on Sharia law which covered a wide range of issues like marriage,
divorce, theft, murder, debt and so on. These laws were interpreted by the Alkali judges in the Alkali courts. Each
emirate could have more than one Alkali court depending on its size. However,
issues not covered by the Sharia law
were transferred to the Emir court where the Emir could preside over such
issues. The Emir must be careful in making his laws or judgments as they must
not go against the will of Islam religion which was the main practice of the
people in Hausa land, for example, the Emir could not legalize the drinking of
alcohol in the emirate. Therefore, the legislative powers of the land can be
said to be solely wielded by the Emir in accordance to the religion of Islam.
The Hausa pre-colonial political system was a highly centralized while, the
Emir posses almost all the powers. This was one of the main reasons why
the Indirect
Rule System was
very successful in the Northern part of Nigeria (Hausa/Fulani Empire).
The
features/characteristics of the Hausa-Fulani Pre-colonial Political system (
1.
Hierarchical:
their political authority was properly arranged having the Emir as the highest
in authority. The Emir is the most powerful traditional rulers in Nigeria.
2.
Autocratic: the
Emir controls all the decisions and takes very little inputs from other group
members, make choices or decisions based on his own beliefs and do not involve
others for their suggestion or advice provided it is in line with the Sharia
law.
3.
Centralization: powers were centralized while the Emir remains the
overall person in charge of the helm of affairs of the community.
4.
Theocracy:
the Emir runs a form of government in which a
religious institution is the source from which all authority derives. Also
religion is fused with politics and the law based on principles of the sharia.
5.
The tax system: the
way they collect tax was systematically organized in such manner that the
collection of revenue for the administration of the Emirate is not cumbersome.
6.
Monarchical: the Emir stands as king and the chief commander of
his territory meaning that his decision is final as he holds the supreme power
of authority.
7.
Feudalistic: they run a system in which the feudal lords own land and people receive
land and protection from a lord when they worked and fought for him.
Functions of the Emir
1. The Emir
who is the head of the Emirates manages disputes or presides over it among his
subjects.
2. Gives
advice to local government chairman the importance of community development.
3. Educates
and encourages his subjects the importance of tax payment
4. Enlightens
his people on the importance of carrying out their civil responsibilities
5. It is the
duty of the Emir to supervise the chieftaincy matters.
6. He
ensures that his people adhere to their cultural heritage.
7. The Emir
ensures that law and order are maintained in his territory.
8. He
presides over Council of Elders meeting in his community.
9. He
appoints official in his emirate.
10. The Emir
performs legislative role and makes law where the sharia law does not cover.
The Igbo pre-colonial political
system was described as an ‘acephalous political system’ which can be translated as ‘a leaderless or
chief less political system’. This term is suitable for describing the Igbo
pre-colonial political system why because it was decentralized and based on
village and direct democracy where everyone in the village has the authority to
contribute in decision making. Each Igbo village was seen as a political unit
inhabited by related families who were bounded by common beliefs and origin.
Each family head in the village held the ‘Ofo‘title
and altogether formed the Council
of Elders. The council of elders presided over important issues on the
village’s welfare, safety, development and so on. Among the Council of Elders,
one was recognized as the most senior to others. He was the ‘Okpara‘. He could call for and
adjourn a meeting, and could also give judgments as well.
The Council of Elders was
believed to be earthly representatives of the Igbo ancestors. They maintained
the age long customs, traditions and laws of the land. These included laws
against misbehavior or immoral acts in which suitable punishment would be meted
out to its perpetrators. There was an important institution in the Igbo
political system called the age-grade. The age-grade consisted
of youngsters that belong to the same age-group. The senior age-group maintained
peace and order in the village and also provided security to ward off external
attacks, while the junior age-group concentrated on the sanitation of the
community and other necessary duties, like going to fine some defaulters that
refused to comply pertaining their rules and regulations.
The age-grade were also involved in
the administration of the village, and as well acted as a check to the council
of elders and other administrative bodies. Another level in the Igbo political
administration were the ‘Ozo‘title
holders. This expensive title was only conferred on wealthy and
influential men in the community who after getting the title become recognized
and could then preside over meetings with the village elders. Also, the
chief priests were not left out in the administration of the village,
great importance were attached to them for they were believed to be the
mouthpiece of the gods e.g. Aro’s
long juju. Even the council of elders consulted the chief priests on matters
that were beyond their powers i.e. matters that needed spiritual intervention.
Therefore, different institutions were doggedly involved in administering the
Igbo community, and powers were equally shared among them.
The political organization of the
Igbos was segmented because there was no central government headed by the king.
They are chief less society that was segmentary
and egalitarian in nature.
Therefore their administrative system was highly
decentralized with diffused power.
The Igbos has no monarch or Kingship except in Onitsha where they have Obi of
Onitsha equivalent to Oba or Emir and Red Cap Chiefs this was as result of the
contact between Onitsha and Benin (Edo state). History has it that under Oba
Esigie, migrants from Benin founded Onitsha town across the river Niger,
thereby brought their traditional life to the people of Onitsha thus explained
why they have central organized political system like the Benin (Crowder,
1978) We can conclude that the
Igbo pre-colonial political system can be safely said to be
similar to the modern Republican system
of government in which the people are governed by their consent. The political
system is also gerontocratic in the
sense that the Council of Elders takes the final decision for any difficult
case. It is also known as the government for the elders of which still reign in
Igbo land even till date. There unit of political and judiciary administration
the village consisting the kindred, whereas the family or kindred was the basic
unit of administration.
Pre-colonial
Political /Administrative System of the Igbos
I.
The Executive:
administrative structures of the Igbo political system were performed by the
village assembly, the council of Elders/Ndichie, the Age Grade and the
Masquerade Cult stands as the Executive functions (
II.
The Legislature: the
Igbo traditional political system lacks formal or specialized bodies for enacting legislation. Laws are made by
the village assembly and the rest of other lawmakers. Various law makers has a
specific role to play; for instance the Age Grade legislates on matter
concerning their mates, the priests of deities enact laws concerning spiritual
matters that concerns land, and where they did not reach agreement the Council
of Elders t
III.
The Judiciary: The
village assembly, the Council of Elders, the Age Grade, and the priest of
deities in their various capacities takes the judicial decisions
Characteristics of Igbo Pre-colonial Political System as mentioned above were that their political system are
noted for being acephalous,
gerontocracy, republican, democratic, highly decentralized, absent of tax
system and egalitarian etc.
Functions of the Age-Grade
The age grade in Igbo land has
various functions to perform.
Ø They serve as security by maintaining internal and external attack from others;
Ø They sweep the community by keeping the place neat.
Ø They also help in development by constructing roads and
mending roads that is bad.
Ø The age grade also fines their
members who fail to meet up their demand.
Ø They discipline any offender who is heady or have failed to abide by
their rules and regulations.
Ø The age grades engage themselves in social-cultural activities like dancing
for entertaining the community for a festive period.
Ø They maintain law and order
The Political Administrative Structure
of the Oyo Empire (Yoruba land)
The vast Oyo Empire was known to be
the largest and the most powerful of all Yoruba empires.
THE ALAAFIN: The Alaafin is the political head of the empire. He was chosen by the Oyomesi. It was claimed that he could only appear three times a year in public and that was only during some historical festivals or event.
THE ALAAFIN: The Alaafin is the political head of the empire. He was chosen by the Oyomesi. It was claimed that he could only appear three times a year in public and that was only during some historical festivals or event.
THE AREMO: is the eldest son of the ruling Alaafin but cannot succeed
his father at his demise. He can only help his father in the administrative
system of the Empire.
THE OYOMESI: These are the seven hereditary kingmakers in the Oyo
Empire. Their leader is Bashroun. Their duty is the installation of the new
Alaafin when the time arises.
BAALE OR OBA: Each province was administered by Ajele or Oba. They
guaranteed the payment of tribute and homage to the Alaafin. There was the
claim that these rulers had the power to threaten any hardened Alaafin or chief
by invoking the god of thunder and lightning through the cult of Sango, to a
deified Alaafin.
THE ARMY (ESO): Are- ona kakanfo is the head of the army. Oyo had for
long maintained a strong army that had been used in winning different wars. It
was claimed that if the army should suffer any defeat, the Aare- ona- kakanfo ways to commit suicide or go on exile.
THE OGBONI SOCIETY: This society posse judicial powers and was involved
also in policy making. The maintenance and preservation of the cultural values
of the people were also delegated to them. They influence a lot of issues in
the society.
THE THREE EUNUCHS: are also involved in the administration of the Empire.
Namely:
1. The Osi Efa: He
was in charge of political affairs, which dies with the Alaafin and can also be
called ‘Abobaku’.
2. The Ona Efa: meant for judicial purpose
3. The Otun Efa: functions for the religious duties of the Alaafin .
Based on what was known as the
Yoruba history we can safely conclude that the Yoruba political system had a
resemblance to the modern federal system of government. Pre-colonial
systems in Nigeria witnessed a lot of alterations
at the advent from the British colonial masters. Several traditional rulers
tried to protect and preserve their political organization of their kingdoms or
empires but were overpowered by the British government and later gave up after
much pressure and threat from the colonial masters. Colonialism had a great
impact on every pre- colonial system in Nigeria, which has come to stay even
till today.
The British conquest and Rule in
Nigeria
The colonial period in Nigeria began with the slave trade in
the 15th century. According to an article from The Commonwealth entitled
"Nigeria: History," the Portuguese paved the way for the slave trade,
and Nigeria was a big area of business for them. They sold slaves in order to
obtain spices and weapons in other areas. However, the article written by
John Edward Phillips entitled "What's New About African History?"
states that the Nigerians themselves were the ones who provided the slaves.
Tensions between different ethnic groups and tribes caused prisoners of war,
they fought for who would be sold to the Portuguese as slaves. The slave trade
business was the main source of income of some Nigerians as at then.
"Nigeria: History" also states that by the 18th century, the British had replaced the Portuguese as
the leaders of the slave trade business. According to Google Cultural Institute's "Birth of the Nigerian Colony," British traders settled
in Nigeria around this time in an area that surrounded the Niger River known as
Lagos. The abolition of the slave trade was the key moment when the British
truly “intervened in the region.” They placed their focus on obtaining goods to
increase their ability to trade, as well as on converting the people of the
area, which was previously heavily Muslim, to Christianity.
The British began their colonization of the area by slowly
moving around the area and defeating different power heads in order to obtain
more trading goods. According to an article written by Toyin Falola titled
"Nigeria as a Colony," the British government gained control over the
Royal Niger Company territories, and added on lower regions near the river to
create the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria and Protectorate of Southern
Nigeria. The British kept their control over Nigeria via indirect rule, which
meant that local leaders would govern the area under orders from the British.
This way, the British could profit from the economy of Nigeria that, because of
their intervention, was based primarily on the export of different crops
including palm oil, cacao, and peanuts, while also not getting in the way of
ethnic tensions.
The British created “divide and rule policy” that could keep
different Nigerian groups as far away from one another as possible. Further
divisions among the country came about from the fact that “traditional
authorities” led the north, and subsequently Islam resisted the spread of
Christianity. The south, however, was home of a “political hierarchy” in which
the British “ruled through those who were most malleable.” In the south
Christianity spread quickly, adding further tensions to the area by separating
people in both religion and politics.
Basically, near the mid 20th century, many groups in Nigeria
were fearful of gaining independence, for they knew the major ethnic groups
would gain control of the new country. However, by 1960, Nigeria gained its
independence.
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