FIRST LESSON NOTE TO DEGREE SOS EDUCATION SSE 202

 

 

Lesson Note on SSE 202

Degree Student 2019 – 2020

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN NIGERIA (3credit unit)

Course content/outline

Social interaction in Nigeria 1500 – 1800 (Grassland zone)

1500 – 1800 (Forest Zone).  Political Systems in Pre-colonial Nigeria.

Social Interactions in Nigeria 1914 – 1960

 

What is Social Interaction?

In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic, changing sequence of social actions between individuals or groups.

                                i.            A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals and is a building block of society. Social interaction can be studied between groups of two (dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.

 

                              ii.            By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems within which they seek to live. Symbols are used to communicate the expectations of a given society to those new to it.

 

                            iii.            A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals and is a building block of society. Social interaction can be studied between groups of two (dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups. By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems within which they seek to live.

 

Key Terms

• dyad: A pair of things standing in particular relation; dyadic relation.
• Social Interaction: A social exchange between two or more individuals.
• Social group: A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, interact with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a common identity.

In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic sequence of social actions between individuals (or groups) who modify their actions and reactions due to actions by their interaction partner(s). Social interactions can be differentiated into accidental, repeated, regular and regulated.

A social interaction is a social exchange between two or more individuals. These interactions form the basis for social structure and therefore are a key object of basic social inquiry and analysis. Social interaction can be studied between groups of two (dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.

Social structures and cultures are founded upon social interactions. By interacting with one another, people design rules, institutions and systems within which they seek to live. Symbols are used to communicate the expectations of a given society to those new to it, either children or outsiders. Through this broad schema of social development, one sees how social interaction lies at its core.

Types of social Interaction

 

Among the most common forms of social interaction are exchange, competition, conflict, cooperation, and accommodation. These five types of interaction take place in societies throughout the world. Whenever people interact in an effort to receive a reward or a return for their actions, an exchange has taken place.

 

Exchange Social exchange theory argues that people form relationships because they determine that it is in their best interests to do so. In forming relationships, people exchange goods and services (including emotional support and interaction). People stay in relationships when they believe that the exchange is beneficial. Social exchange theory is rooted in rational choice theory. Individuals evaluate the worth of an action by subtracting the costs from the rewards.

Social exchange theory is a socio psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. The theory is fundamentally oriented around rational choice theory, or the idea that all human behavior is guided by an individual’s interpretation of what is in his best interest. Social exchange theory advances the idea that relationships are essential for life in society and that it is in one’s interest to form relationships with others. Social exchange theory argues that forming relationships is advantageous because of exchange. Each party to the relationship exchanges particular goods and perspectives, creating a richer life for both.

Competition is a contest between people or groups of people for control over resources. In this definition, resources can have both literal and symbolic meaning. People can compete over tangible resources like land, food, and mates, but also over intangible resources, such as social capital. Competition is the opposite of cooperation and arises whenever two parties strive for a goal that cannot be shared.

Competition can have both beneficial and detrimental effects. Positively, competition may serve as a form of recreation or a challenge provided that it is non-hostile. On the negative side, competition can cause injury and loss to the organisms involved, and drain valuable resources and energy.

Conflict

Social conflict is the struggle for agency or power within a society to gain control of scarce resources. Conflict theory argues that conflict is a normal and necessary part of social interaction. In other words, conflict is seen as part of the social landscape rather than an anomaly. According to the theory, conflict is motivated by pursuit of personal interests. All individuals and groups are interested in gaining control over scarce resources, and this leads to conflict. Once one party gets control of resources; that party is unlikely to release them to anyone thereby using it to satisfy their selfish means or interest. The Matthew Effect is the idea that those in control will remain in control.

Matthew Effect: The idea that those who have control will maintain control.

Zero Sum Game: The idea that if group A acquires any given resource, group B will be unable to acquire it.

Social Conflict: The struggle for agency or power within a society.

Social conflict is the struggle for agency or power within a society. It occurs when two or more people oppose one another in social interactions, reciprocally exerting social power in an effort to attain scarce or incompatible goals, and prevent the opponent from attaining them.

Conflict theory emphasizes interests deployed in conflict, rather than the norms and values. This perspective argues that the pursuit of interests is what motivates conflict. Resources are scarce and individuals naturally fight to gain control of them. Thus, the theory sees conflict as a normal part of social life, rather than an abnormal occurrence. The three tenets of conflict theory are as follows:

1. Society is composed of different groups that compete for resources.
2. While societies may portray a sense of cooperation, a continual power struggle exists between social groups as they pursue their own interests.
3. Social groups will use resources to their own advantage in the pursuit of their goals, frequently leading powerful groups to take advantage of less powerful groups.

Conflict theory relies upon the notion of a zero sum game, meaning that if group A acquires any given resource, group B will be unable to acquire it. Thus, any gain for group A is automatically a loss for group B. Conflict theory further argues that group A will continue to search for resources in order to keep group B from getting them, leading to the exploitation of the powerless. The idea that those who have control will maintain control is called the Matthew Effect.

According to the principles of conflict theory, all cooperation is only for the purpose of acquiring individual or group resources. This motivation for behavior restructures day-to-day interactions among people in a given society.

War: War is the classic example of conflict: one army is attempting to maintain control of resources (land, weapons, morale) so that the other army cannot have them.

Cooperation is the process of two or more people working or acting in concert. There are three types of cooperation (coerced, voluntary and unintentional) and why cooperation is necessary for social reality. Cooperation can be coerced, voluntary, or unintentional. Communication is necessary for cooperation. Cooperation derives from an overlap in desires and is more likely if there is a relationship between the parties.

Unintentional Cooperation: It is a form of cooperation in which individuals do not necessarily intend to cooperate, but end up doing so because of aligning interests.

Voluntary Cooperation: It is cooperation to which all parties consent.

Coerced Cooperation: It is when cooperation between individuals is forced.

Communication plays an essential role in cooperation. Communication enables simple acts of cooperation by facilitating parties’ recognition that they have mutual interests and large acts of cooperation by organizing the masses. Without communication, individuals would not be able to organize themselves to cooperate. Cooperation in Politics: Without cooperation, Congress would be unable to create any laws.

Accommodation

The term ‘accommodation’ is derived from experimental psychology, where it denotes how individuals modify their activity to fit the require­ments of external social world. Although accommodation has its origin in conflict situation, still it is radically different type of interaction.

In a conflict situation there are always forces operating to its cessation because conflict does not continue indefinitely. The forces making for peace, as those making for war, are continuously operative. The transition from a state of war to a condition of peace may come in numerous ways. After sometime conflicting parties come to certain terms. This state is known as accommodation.

Accommodation is a form of social interaction in which we get used to the factors that are likely to lead to conflict either by force of habit, or sheer inertia, or a desire to ‘live and let live’. It simply means adjusting oneself to the new environment.

According to Park and Burgess (1921) observe: ‘Accommodation is a natural issue of conflicts. In an accommodation, the antagonism of the hostile elements is temporarily regulated and conflict disappears as an overt action. Even though it remains latent and may become active again with a change in the situation.’

Accommodation is ‘a process of developing temporary working agree­ments between conflicting individuals’ (Horton and Hunt, 1964).

 ‘Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups’ (Ogburn and Nimkoff, 1958).

From the above description, we may sum up the characteristics of accommo­dation as follows:

1. It is the natural result of conflict (Park and Burgess, 1921). Even if conflict disappears as an overt action, it remains latent as a potential.

2. It is a universal process.

3. It is a continuous process. It changes with the changing environment.

4. It is a state in which the attitudes of love and hate coexist (Ogburn and Nimkoff, 1958).

5. It is generally and subconscious process.

6. It is an agreement to disagree (Jones, 1949).

7. It involves changes in habits, attitudes, patterns of behaviour, techniques, institutions and traditions, etc., according to the changed conditions of life.

2. Compromise:

When the combatants are of equal strength neither may be able to prevail over the other, they attain accommodation by agreeing to a compromise. In compromise each party to the dispute makes some concessions and yields to some demand of the other.

The ‘all or nothing’ attitude gives way to a willingness to yield certain points in order to gain others. “A compromise is by its nature a crazy quilt in which everyone can identify his patch, he can find consolation for his disappointment by reflecting that everyone else is disappointed too.” The settlement of the parliament disputes involves accommodation of this kind.

3. Arbitration and Conciliation:

Accommodation is also achieved by means of arbitration and conciliation which involve attempts on the part of the third party to bring about an end of the conflict between the contending parties. The labour management conflicts, the conflict between the husband and the wife and sometimes even the political conflicts are resolved through the intervention of an arbitrator or a mediator in whom both the parties have full confidence. In International Law mediation or arbitration is a recognized mode of settling international disputes.

Difference should, however, be noted between Mediation and Arbitration. Mediation is the technique of bringing estranged individuals together and creating in them the willingness to consider the possible settlement of their difficulty. The mediators may even suggest a basis for settlement in case the contestants themselves seem to have no common meeting ground.

The suggestions made by the mediator have however no binding force. Arbitration differs from mediation in that a definite decision on the issue is handed down by the individuals who serve as arbitrators, and the decision is regarded as binding on the contestants.

Toleration:

Toleration is the form of accommodation in which there is no settlement of difference but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict. In toleration no concession is made by any of the groups and there is no change in basic policy. It involves acceptance of some state of affairs definitely objectionable; to the accepting group but for some reasons not deemed possible or/and advisable to dispose of in a more conclusive manner.

Each group however must bear with the other. Toleration is best exemplified particularly in the field of religion where the different religious groups exist side by side, each according some rights to the others which it claims for itself.

The co-existence of states with radically different economic and social systems such as communist and capitalist systems is another example of toleration. The differences in such cases cannot be resolved as they involve irreconcilable ideologies.

Conversion:

Conversion involves conviction on the part of one of the contending parties that it has been wrong and its opponent right. Accordingly it may go over to the other side and identify itself with the new point of view. This process thus consists of the repudiation of one’s beliefs or allegiance and the adoption of others. Ordinarily conversion is thought of only in connection with religion but it may also occur in politics, economics and other fields.

Rationalization:

Accommodation through rationalization involves plausible excuses or explanations for one’s behaviour instead of acknowledging the real defect in one’s own self. One thus justifies one’s behaviour by ascribing his failure to discrimination against him instead of admitting lack of ability.

Not only individuals but groups also try to justify their action on purely imaginary grounds. Nazi Germany, for example, had advanced the reason for starting Second World War that the Allies were planning to destroy Germany. Similarly, Americans had justified their participation in it by announcing that they wanted to free the world from fascism.

Eye Contact

Eye contact develops in a cultural context and different gazes have different meanings all over the world.

Eye contact is an incredibly expressive form of nonverbal communication.

Eye contact aligns with the relationship underlying the gaze. People who are close with one another look at each other’s eyes; avoiding eye contact can put distance between two individuals.

The customs and significance of eye contact vary widely between cultures, with religious and social differences often altering its meaning greatly. For example, Japanese children are taught to direct their gaze at the region of their teacher’s Adam’s apple or tie knot.

Eye contact: The condition or action of looking at another human or animal in the eye.

Oculesics: The study of eye contact as a form of body language.

Eye contact is the meeting of the eyes between two individuals. In humans, eye contact is a form of nonverbal communication and has a large influence on social behavior. The study of eye contact is sometimes known as oculesics.

Eye contact provides a way in which one can study social interactions, as it provides indications of social and emotional information. People, perhaps without consciously doing so, probe each other’s eyes and faces for signs of positive or negative mood. In some contexts, the meeting of eyes arouses strong emotions. Eye contact can establish a sense of intimacy between two individuals, such as the gazes of lovers or the eye contact involved in flirting. Alternatively, avoiding eye contact can establish distance between people. When in crowds, people tend to avoid eye contact in order to maintain privacy.

The customs and significance of eye contact vary widely between cultures, with religious and social differences often altering its meaning greatly. According to the tenets of the Islamic faith, Muslims ought to lower their gazes and try not to focus on the features of the opposite sex, except for the hands and face. Japanese children are taught to direct their gaze at the region of their teacher’s Adam’s apple or tie knot. As adults, Japanese tend to lower their eyes when speaking to a superior as a gesture of respect. In Eastern Africa, it is respectful not to look the dominant person in the eye, whereas such avoidance of eye contact is negatively interpreted in Western cultures. As with all forms of social interaction that impart social significance, eye contact is culturally determined.

 

Social Status

Social status refers to one’s standing in the community and his position in the social hierarchy.

Lesson to learn

• Social status may be achieved (earned) or ascribed (assigned at birth).
• Both achieved and ascribed statuses influence one another.
• Social mobility allows an individual to move between social levels in the general social hierarchy.
• Max Weber suggests that social status is the confluence of property, prestige, and power.
• Pierre Bourdieu argues that social status is a combination of economic and social capital, which combines to produce a difference of social “tastes” that are decided by class.
• Pierre Bourdieu argues that social status is a combination of economic and social capital, which combines to produce a difference of social “tastes” that divide by class.

Other terms

• hierarchy: Any group of objects ranked so that everyone but the topmost is subordinate to a specified group above it.
• Pierre Bourdieu: A twentieth century French sociologist who developed the notion of social capital.
• prestige: A measure of how good the reputation of something or someone is, or how favorably something or someone is regarded.

Social status refers to the honor or prestige attached to one’s position in society. It may also refer to a rank or position that one holds in a group, such as son or daughter, playmate, pupil, etc. One’s social status is determined in different ways. One can earn his or her social status by his or her own achievements; this is known as achieved status. Alternatively, one can inherit his or her position on the social hierarchy; this is known as ascribed status. An ascribed status can also be defined as one that is fixed for an individual at birth, like sex, race, and socioeconomic background.

Social status is most often understood as a melding of the two types of status, with ascribed status influencing achieved status. For example, a baby born into a high-income household has his family’s high socioeconomic status as an achieved status and is more likely to be exposed to resources like a familial emphasis on education that will make it more likely for him or her to get into an elite university. Admission, therefore, is an achieved status that was heavily influenced by resources made available by the person’s ascribed status.