POL 322 International Organizations (2 Credits) C

This course will examine the, concept of international organization and its characteristics; features, the structure, functions and problems of the various international organizations listed below

i. League of Nations

ii. The United Nations Organizations formerly called (U. N.O.) presently called United Nations (UN)

iii. The commonwealth of Nations

iv. African Union ( formerly called Organization of African Unity (OAU) presently called (AU)

v. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

vi. European Union (EU)

vii. New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)

viii. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

ix. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Country (OPEC).

Historical overview of International Organization (The League of Nations)

The League of Nations was the first permanent early international Organization that lasted for some years. The first meeting of the League of Nations was held in 1920 at Geneva in Switzerland. It was created by the Versailles and other peace treaties ending World War I. The upbraided nationalism that had inflamed Europe in the early 20th century was widely seen as a major cause of World War I. The horrendous losses in the War convinced many Europeans that there must never be another war.

The League of Nations proposed by the 28th US president (1856 - 1924) Woodrow Wilson who served in office from 1913 to 1921 and lead America through World War 1(1914 - 1918) was seen as a way of preventing war in the future through a system of collective security. The League was a culmination of other political thinkers who had late the intellectual background; men like the duke de Sully and Immaniuel Kant. The League failed in the face of Fascism (a RIGHT WING political system in which people’s lives were completely controlled by the state and no political opposition is allowed to air their views on it was used in Germany and Italy in the 1930s and 40s). Its successor was the United Nations (UN)

Original Members of the League of Nations - January 10, 1920

Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, el Salvador, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Netherlands, New Zealand Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Persia, Peru Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, South Africa, United Kingdom, Uruguay Venezuela, Yugoslavia (40 members).

Successes of the League of Nations

The League settled various cases that were tabled before them as thus:

v First they quickly proved its value by settling the Swedish-Finnish dispute over the Å land Islands (1920–21),

v guaranteeing the security of Albania (1921),

v rescuing Austria from economic disaster,

v settling the division of Upper Silesia (1922),

v and preventing the outbreak of war in the Balkans between Greece and Bulgaria (1925). In addition,

v the League extended considerable aid to refugees; it helped to suppress white slave and opium traffic;

v it did pioneering work in surveys of health; it extended financial aid to the needy states; and it furthered international cooperation in labour relations and many other fields.

Failures of the League of Nations

The problem of bringing its political influence to bear, especially on the great powers, soon made itself felt.

v This was when their failures started by Poland refusing to abide by the League decision in the Vilnius dispute, and the League was forced to stand by powerlessly in the face of the French occupation of the Ruhr (1923) and Italy's occupation of Kérkira (1923).

v Failure to take action over the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931) was a blow to the League's prestige, especially when followed by Japan's withdrawal from the League (1933).

v Another serious failure was the inability of the League to stop the Chaco War (1932–35) between Bolivia and Paraguay. In 1935 the League completed its successful 15-year administration of the Saar territory by conducting a plebiscite under the supervision of an international military force.

v But even this success was not sufficient to offset the failure of the Disarmament Conference that lead to the, Germany's withdrawal from the League (1933),

v and Italy's successful attack on Ethiopia in defiance of the League's economic sanctions (1935).

v In 1936, Adolf Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland and denounced the Treaty of Versailles; in 1938 he seized Austria.

v The league was faced by threats to international peace from all sides; the Spanish civil war,

v Japan's resumption of war against China (1937),

v and finally the appeasement of Hitler at Munich (1938) and finally the League collapsed. German’s claims on Danzig, where the League commissioner had been reduced to impotence, led to the outbreak of World War II.

The last important act of the League came in Dec., 1939, when it expelled the USSR for its attack on Finland. In 1940 the League secretariat in Geneva was reduced to a skeleton staff; some of the technical services were removed to the United States and Canada. The allied International Labor Organization continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the United Nations. In 1946 the League dissolved itself, and its services and real estate (notably the Palais des Nations in Geneva) were transferred to the United Nations. The League's chief success lay in providing the first pattern of permanent international organization, a pattern on which much of the United Nations was modeled. Its failures were due as much to the indifference of the great powers, which preferred to reserve important matters for their own decisions, as to weaknesses of the organization.

Role of international Organizations

There are limitations of their members and in relation to their geographical spheres of activities (e.g. Organization of American States) or strive for global participation (e.g. International Telegraph Union). They can devote themselves to a specific field of action (e.g. OPEC) or address a broad range of topics (e.g. United Nations).International Governmental Organization is characterized by regular general Assemblies and plenary sessions, a permanent secretariat and an identifiable headquarters. IGOs are usually headed by leaders whose titles can vary considerably (Secretary-General of the United Nations, Director-General of the World Health Organization, President of the World Bank, Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund, etc.). It is of great importance that the assigned representatives of the member states and especially the staff of the permanent secretariat of an IGO are exclusively committed to the interests of the member states.

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) are more than instruments of co-operating nation states; they develop their own institutional logic and procedures and pursue their own interests in regard to their organizational goal. The term "international organization", however, goes beyond the various forms of intergovernmental cooperation and also designates private organizational forms of transnational groups and associations. In some cases, INGOs are forerunners of IGOs, for example the International Association of the Legal Protection of Labour, whose activities were the basis for the ILO, founded in 1919. Above all, however, INGOs are never completely free from governmental influence. They have to pursue their activities within the scope of a legitimate legal governmental framework and are in many cases active in areas (health, protection of the environment, etc.) that are ultimately legislated by the state alone.

They differ in function, of membership and membership criteria. They have various goals and scopes, often outlined in the treaty or charter. Some IGOs developed to fulfill a need for a neutral forum for debate or negotiation to resolve disputes. Others developed to carry out mutual interests with unified aims to preserve peace through conflict resolution and better international relations, promote international cooperation on matters such as environmental protection, to promote human rights, to promote social development (education, health care), to render human they, international communications, scientific cooperation, labour organizations, economic cooperation, the international food regime, Internal aid, and the economic development, assisting refugees and displaced persons as well as issues of international law. Some are more general in scope like the United Nations while others may have subject-specific missions (such as Interpol or the International Organization for Standardization and other standards organizations).

Expansion and growth

Presently there are more than 6,743 International Governmental Organizations (IGOs) worldwide, and this number continues to rise daily. The increase is attributed to globalization, which increases and encourages the cooperation among and within states. Globalization has provided easier means for International Governmental Organizational (IGO) growth, as a result of increased international relations. As they continued to expand it was observed that they went extra mile to grow economically, politically, militarily, as well as on the domestic level.

Economically, IGOs benefit material and non-material resources for economic growth. International Governmental Organizations also provide more political stability among the state that was concerned. Meanwhile Military alliances were formed by establishing common standards in order to ensure security of the members to ward off outside threats. With the formation of IGOs it has encouraged autocratic states to develop into democracies in order to form an effective and internal government.

Participation and involvement

Several reasons may ginger states to become a member of International Governmental Organization (IGOs) likewise other reasons may disqualify them to become a member. These reasons are stated below.

Reasons for membership participation

Economic rewards: In the case of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), many different countries receive economic benefits from membership in the free trade agreement. For example, Mexican companies are given better access to U.S. markets due to their membership.
Political influence: Smaller countries, such as Portugal and the Netherlands, who do not carry much political clout on the international stage, are given a substantial increase in influence through membership in IGOs, such as the European Union. Also for countries with more influence such as France and Germany they are beneficial as the nation increases influence in the smaller countries' internal affairs and expanding other nations dependence on themselves, so to preserve allegiance
Security: Membership in an IGO such as NATO gives security benefits to member countries. This provides an avenue where political differences can be resolved.
To improve on the survival of democracy: It has been noted that member countries experience a greater degree of democracy and those democracies

The United Nations

The United Nations officially came into existence (October 24, 1945) The Charter was signed by the representatives of the 50 countries (June 26, 1945). The main reason for the establishment of this international organization is to ensure the maintenance of peace and security in the entire world. Currently, there are 193 members of the UNO, together with two others who do not have membership status but rather the status of observer nations. These are the state of Palestine and the Holy See (a jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome). Poland was not represented at the Conference, but signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States. That was when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States and by a majority of other signatories. The great powers (Britain, China, France, Soviet Union, and the United states) were given veto power in the Security Council. The Soviets wanted a vote in the General Assembly for each of its 16 constituent republics.

The main organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Secretariat. All were established in 1945 when the UN was founded.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE UNITED NATIONS

1. To maintain international Peace and security

2. To develop friendly relations among Nations

3. To cooperate in solving international Economic, Social, Cultural and Humanitarian problem and to promote respect for human rights

4. To work as a Centre for achieving the goals written above

PRINCIPLES OF UNITED NATIONS

1. Based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its members.

2. All members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance with present charter of the United Nations.

3. All members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security and justice are not endangered.

4. All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.

5. All members shall give the United Nation assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the present Charter of the United.

6. This organisation shall ensure that states which are not members of the United Nations act in accordance with these principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.

7.Nothing contained in the present Charter of the United Nations shall authorize the United Nations in the present matters which are essentially within t the domestic jurisdiction of any states or shall require the members to submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter-VII of the Charter of the United Nations.

MEMBERSHIP OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Article-3 of the charter, there are two types of the members of United Nations such as :-

ORIGINAL MEMBERS:-Those members who participated in San Francisco Conference and signed the Charter at that time are known as Original Members. These were 51 in number.

NEW MEMBERS:- According to Article-4 of the Charter new members can also join United Nations. Every nation who is committed to peace and is eligible to fulfill the obligations included in the charter can become the member of United Nations.

EXPULSION OF MEMBERS NATION FROM UNITED NATIONS

Under Article-6 of the Charter of the United Nations a nation which is unable to fulfill the obligations of United Nations or violates the Charter can expelled from the membership of the United Nations. The recommendation to expel a member is made by Security Council to the General Assembly with 2/3 majority which must include 5 permanent members and if the recommendation is accepted by the General Assembly, then the concerned member is expelled from the United Nations.

POSITION OF OBSERVER:-Those countries that are not the member of United Nation can take part in the meeting of General Assembly as observers on the recommendation of General Assembly.

COMMITTEES OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

It works through its committees. There are seven committees of General Assembly which are as follow:

* Political and security committee

* Economic and Financial committee

* Trusteeship Committee

* Administrative and Budgeting Committee

* Social, Humanitarian and cultural Committee

* Legal committee

* Special committee

* Special political committee

§ The General Assembly: is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN. All 193 Member States of the UN are represented in the General Assembly, making it the only UN body with universal representation. The General Assembly discusses any matter arising under the UN charter and make recommendation to UN members (except on disputes or situation which are being considered by the Security Council). In the Assembly each nation large or small has one vote and important discussions are taken by two-thirds majority vote. Each year, in September, the full UN membership meets in the General Assembly Hall in New York for the annual General Assembly session, and general debate, which many heads of state attend and address. Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority of the General Assembly. Decisions on other questions are by simple majority. The work of the General Assembly is also carried out by its six main committees the Human Rights Council, other subsidiary bodies and the UN Secretariat. The General Assembly, each year, elects a GA President to serve a one-year term of office.

FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF GENERAL ASSEMBLY

§ Electoral functions

§ Deliberative Functions

§ To pass Resolutions

§ To pass Uniting for Peace Resolution

§ Supervisory Functions

§ Financial Functions

§ Constitutional Functions

§ To promote cooperation in economic, social and cultural field

§ Development of International law.

§ Security Council: the Security Council has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and security. When a threat to peace is brought before the Council it usually asks the parties to reach agreement by peace means. If fighting breaks outthe Council tries to secure a seize fire. It may then send peacekeeping missions to troubled areas or call for economic sanctions and embargoes to restore peace. It has 15 Members including 5 permanent members: China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States of America plus 10 non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly on the basis of geographical representation for two – year terms. Decision require nine votes; except on procedural questions; decision cannot be taken if there is a negative vote by a permanent member (known as the “veto”) the council also makes recommendations to the General Assembly on the appointment of new Secretary-General and on the admission of new members to the UN. Many countries want to expand the membership of the council to include new permanent and non permanent members. Each Member has one vote. Under the Charter, all Member States are obligated to comply with Council decisions. The Security Council takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression. It calls upon the parties to a dispute to settle it by peaceful means and recommends methods of adjustment or terms of settlement. In some cases, the Security Council can resort to imposing sanctions or even authorize the use of force to maintain or restore international peace and security. The Security Council has a Presidency, which rotates, and changes, every month.

• Daily programme of work of the Security Council

• Subsidiary organs of the Security Council Economic and Social Council.

FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF SECURITY COUNCIL

* Security Council works for international peace and security.

* Admission of new members in United Nations

* Electoral Functions

* Constituent Functions

* Enforcement of the decisions of the United Nations

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

COMPOSITION:- Its members are elected by the General Assembly with 2/3 majority for a period of 3 years. Its 1/3 members retire very year.

CHAIRMAN AND MEETINGS:-One chairman. It holds two meeting in a year.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF SECURITY COUNCIL:- The powers and functions of Economic and security council have been mentioned from Article-62 to Article-65 of the U.N Charter which are following:

* Their main function is to conduct studies and prepare report regarding international economic, social, cultural, educational and health matters.

* It prepares its report before the General Assembly regarding the subjects which come under its control.

* It makes recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect of Human Rights and fundamental Freedoms of all the people.

* It establishes coordination among the various agencies of the United Nations.

* It does all those functions which fall under its jurisdiction for carrying out the recommendations of General Assembly.

§ The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as implementation of internationally agreed development goals. It is the UN families of organizations. It serves as the central mechanism for activities of the UN system and its specialized agencies in the economic, social and environmental fields, supervising subsidiary and expert bodies. It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms as much as 70 percent of the work of the UN system is devoted to promoting higher standard of living, full employment. The Council recommends and directs activities aimed at promoting economic growth of developing countries, supporting human rights and fostering world cooperation to fight poverty and under-development to meet specific needs the General Assembly. They also have set up a number of specializes agencies such as the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organizations (WHO) and the un Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and programmes such as the UN development programmes (UNDP), the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the office of the UN High Commissioner for refugees (UNHCR). The work of these agencies and programmes are coordinated by ECOSOC. It is the United Nations’ central platform for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on sustainable development.

§ Trusteeship Council: the Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter XIII, to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been placed under the administration of seven Member States, and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and independence. The Trusteeship Council was assigned under the UN charter to supervise the administration of Trust territories which were placed under the international Trusteeship System. The system was created at the end the Second World War to promote the advancement of the inhabitant of those dependent territories and their progressive development towards self government or independence. Since the creation of the Trusteeship Council more than 70 colonial territories including all of the original II Trust territories have attained independence with the help of the United Nations. By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence. The Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994. By a resolution adopted on 25 May 1994, the Council amended its rules of procedure to drop the obligation to meet annually and agreed to meet as occasion required by its decision or the decision of its President, or at the request of a majority of its members or the General Assembly or the Security Council.

FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF TRUSTSHIP COUNCIL

§ It works for the development of trust territories.

§ It enables the people living in trust territories eligible for getting independence and self rule.

§ It supervises the developmental works being carried on in trust territories.

§ It sends report to the General Assembly about the development of trust territories.

§ It works for the promotion of international peace and security.

§ It listens to the complaints of the people living in trust territories and issues instructions to the concerned states for their redress.

§ International Court of Justice (ICJ): the International Court of Justice or “World Court” is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. They have 15 judges in each of the different nations, elected by the General Assembly and Security between nations only and not between individuals in accordance with International Law. If a country does not wish to take part in proceeding it does not have to do so unless required by special treaty provisions. Whenever a country accepts the court’s jurisdiction it must comply with its decision. The court settles legal disputes its seat is at the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands). It is the only one of the six principal organs of the United Nations not located in New York (United States of America). The offices of the court occupies the “Peace Palace” that was constructed by the Conegie Foundation which is a private non organization, that serve as the head quarters of the Permanent Court of International Justice, the predecessor of the present court. Annual contribution is made by the UN to make use of the building. The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

* Voluntary Jurisdiction

* Compulsory Jurisdiction

* Advisory Jurisdiction

* Enforcement of Decisions

§ The Secretariat: the UN Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization's other principal organs. The Secretary-General is chief administrative officer of the Organization, appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year, renewable term. UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally, and work in duty stations and on peacekeeping missions all around the world. But serving the cause of peace in a violent world is a dangerous occupation. Since the founding of the United Nations, hundreds of brave men and women have given their lives in its service. (https://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/main-organs/#:~:text=The%20main%20organs%20of%20the,Justice%2C%20and%20the%201UN%20Secretariat.)

FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF THE SECRETARY GENERAL

§ Administrative Functions

§ Financial Functions

§ Political Functions

§ Representative Functions

The past and present Secretary – Generals of the United Nations from October 24 1945 till date

1. Tygve Lie from Norway (1946-1952). We should not that Gladwyn, Jebb, from the United Kingdom served as Acting Secretary – General from 24^th October 1945 – February 1946 before Tygve Lie fully assumed office.

2. Dag, Hammarskjold from Sweden (1953-1961).

3. Uthant, from Burma recently known as Myanmar (1961-1971).

4. Kurt, Waldheim from Austria (1972-1981).

5. Javier, Perez de Cuellar from Peru (1982-1991).

6. Boutros Boutros-Ghali form Egypt (1992-1996).

7. Kofi Annan from Ghana (1997-2006).

8. Ban Ki-Moon from Republic of Korea (2007-2016).

9. Antonio Guterres from Portugal (2017 till date) (ask.un.org/fag/14625).

THE BENEFITS COUNTRIES DERIVE FROM THEIR MEMBERSHIP OF THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION

Why do states want to become or remain members of this august body? What is in it for them? Listed below are some of the benefits nations derive from their membership of the United Nations Organization and why it is on the wish of the nations of the world.

Note, however, that the United Nations will not sit down unconcerned when conflict, famine or any natural calamity erupts in any part of the world because that nation does not belong to the body. They will find a way to help to bring the situation down. For example, Palestine does not have an official membership in the UN but there will be an intervention from the body if any conflict erupts in that region.

Ø Prevention of conflict

One of the major reasons for the establishment of the UN is to ensure the prevention of the eruption of conflicts. The United Nations Charter, which was coming after the failure of the League of Nations to prevent the Secord World War, has a central role of conflict prevention. Though the role of the United Nations in conflict prevention does not usually appear in the frontpages of global newspapers, the organization has been effective in preventing many violent conflicts. Various tools are deployed in engaging local, national and international political actors to find peace before they escalate into conflict.

The United Nations, through the Security Council has intervened to prevent conflicts from occurring. Where there is a threat to peace, and the Security Council gets wind of it, it first recommends that parties settle cases by peaceful means. Member-countries benefit from membership of the UN when mediation by the Security Council helps to avert armed conflict in their countries.

Ø Peace keeping

In a situation where the Security Council, after trying its best, is unable to prevent the conflict from occurring, they are able to use UN Peace-keeping soldiers to restore peace and keep it from further escalating. The UN has been in Lebanon, Bosnia, Darfur, etc to restore and maintain peace. Member-states benefit from their membership of the UN in times of violent conflicts where both sides of the conflict refuse to see reason.

Ø Conflict resolution

Member-states of the United Nations benefit from their membership in the area of conflict resolution. This is able to prevent unnecessary conflicts on the world stage. A very recent case is the near conflict between Ghana and la Cote D’voire when the latter accused the former of exploring for oil in her territorial waters. This matter was taken to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) for redress. Membership of the UN therefore helps member-countries to resolve conflicts in peaceful ways and to avoid unnecessary wars.

Ø Food aid to affected countries

The United Nations has provided food aid to countries experiencing food shortages. Another benefit of belonging to the world organization is that, during food shortages or severe famine, countries can count on the Food and Agricultural Organization and the World Food Programmes, all of the United Nations to distribute food aid to affected areas. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) was established by the United Nations with the sole mandate of defeating hunger. A membership of the United Nations will ensure that the FAO intervein before countries slip into famine due to conflict and other economic, political or natural factors.

Ø Health benefits through the World Health Organization (WHO)

Another way in which countries benefit from their membership of the UN is the global fight of the international body against diseases, epidemics and pandemics. A very recent fight is the fight against Corona virus, which is still ravaging the world. The World Health Organization, which is an agency within the United Nations has taken a leading role, giving policy adviser and direction to the entire world. Even before the advent of Covid19, the UN has been in a prolong fight against malaria, which is devastating African countries mostly. It has also been instrumental in the fight against ebola in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). In 2019, for example, the UN, in conjunction with other Non-governmental Organizations, contained the spread of ebola in the North Kivu Province of DRC.

Ø Promotion of human rights

Another benefit of the membership of the United Nations is the promotion and respect for human rights in member-countries. There are universal values such as the right to life, free speech, the right to engage in legitimate business etc which every member of the United Nations is enjoined to adhere to. Any violations of these values by member countries is frowned upon and some members could be sanctioned for breaches. So membership of the UN helps to promote the value for human rights in member countries.

Ø Recognition of statehood

The United Nations Organization, does not have the power to confer statehood on a country. It does not also have the authority to recognize a state or a government. However, one of the ways of receiving recognition from other members of the comity of nations, is to become a member of the United Nations. One of the benefits of a membership of the United Nations is, therefore, to be recognized by other nations of the world.

Ø Trial of war criminals

Countries which have experienced war, where citizens have suffered atrocities in the hands of their leaders or other political players, have the opportunity of getting people involved in the atrocities tried as war criminals. This is also a benefit of a country belonging to the UN.

Such trials are able to bring closure to those who suffered during violent conflicts. The victims of war are able to talk about the horrible things they saw and experienced. Countries which belong to the United Nations ensure that those who are responsible for atrocities during armed conflicts are made to pay for their deeds. For example, the former Yugoslavia version of the International Criminal Tribunal brought people who were responsible for war crimes during the Balkans conflict to justice. Also, the former President of Liberia was tried by the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) for his alleged support for the activities of two rebel groups in Sierra Leone. The SCSL was established by the government of Sierra Leone and the Unted NAtions Organization.

WEAKNESSES OF THE UNITED NATIONS

1. Tool of big power

2. Domestic Jurisdiction

3. Less representation to Asia and Africa

4. Veto Power

5. Military Alliances

6. Non-sovereign body

7. Lack of permanent Forces

8. Lack of Money

9. Against the principle of Equality

10. No representation to subordinate States

11. Defective Organization

12. Politics of Appointments

13. Lack of Impartiality

14. Charter is too rigid.

ACHIEVEMENT OF THE UNITED NATIONS

1. Maintenance of world Peace

2. Economic and social Progress

3. Promotion of international Cooperation

4. Disarmament

5. Use of Atomic Energy for peaceful Purposes

6. Universal Declaration of Human Rights

7. Codification and development of international Law

8. Freedom for dependent states

9. Rehabilitation of Refugees

10. To end Apartheid

11. Opposition to colonialism

12. Help for children

13. Development of International trade

14. Use of outer space for human welfare

15. Improvement in the condition of women

16. Efforts to solve world food problem

17. United Nations and the problem of growing world population

18. Establishment of U.N. University

19. United nation and protection of environment

The Commonwealth of Nations

It is a voluntary association of 54 independent and equal countries. Member’s government share goals like development, democracy and peace. It is home to 2.4 billion people, and includes both advanced economies and developing countries. 32 of our members are small states, including many island nations.

The Commonwealth's roots go back to the British Empire. But today any country can join the modern Commonwealth. The last country to join the Commonwealth was Rwanda in 2009.

The early Commonwealth

Over time different countries of the British Empire gained different levels of freedom from Britain. Semi-independent countries were called Dominions. Leaders of the Dominions attended conferences with Britain from 1887.

The 1926 Imperial Conference was attended by the leaders of Australia, Canada, India, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, New Zealand and South Africa.

At the 1926 conference Britain and the Dominions agreed that they were all equal members of a community within the British Empire. They all owed allegiance to the British king or queen, but the United Kingdom did not rule over them. This community was called the British Commonwealth of Nations or just the Commonwealth.

Birth of the modern Commonwealth

The Dominions and other territories of the British Empire gradually became fully independent of the United Kingdom. India became independent in 1947. India wanted to become a republic which didn't owe allegiance to the British king or queen, but it also wanted to stay a member of the Commonwealth. At a Commonwealth Prime Ministers meeting in London in 1949, the London Declaration said that republics and other countries could be part of the Commonwealth. The modern Commonwealth of Nations was born. King George VI was the first Head of the Commonwealth, and Queen Elizabeth II became Head when he died. But the British king or queen is not automatically Head of the Commonwealth. Commonwealth member countries choose who becomes Head of the Commonwealth.

Duties of Commonwealth Association

The Commonwealth is an association of 54 countries working towards shared goals of prosperity, democracy and peace. The Commonwealth Secretariat is the intergovernmental organisation which co-ordinates and carries out much of the Commonwealth's work, supported by a network of more than 80 organisations.

The Secretariat works all over the Commonwealth, to:

· protect the environment and encourage sustainable use of natural resources on land and sea

· boost trade and the economy

· support democracy, government and the rule of law

· develop society and young people, including gender equality, education, health and sport

· support small states, helping them tackle the particular challenges they face.

The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation (CFTC) is the main way that the Commonwealth Secretariat provides technical help to Commonwealth countries. We make sure the help we offer is driven by what countries tell us they need.

The modern Commonwealth

Since 1949 independent countries from Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and the Pacific have joined the Commonwealth. Membership are based on free and equal voluntary co-operation.

The last 2 countries to join the Commonwealth - Rwanda and Mozambique - have no historical ties to the British Empire.

The Commonwealth Secretariat was created in 1965 as a central intergovernmental organisation to manage the Commonwealth's work.

Commonwealth Charter

The Commonwealth Charter is a document of the values and aspirations which unite the Commonwealth.

It expresses the commitment of member states to the development of free and democratic societies and the promotion of peace and prosperity to improve the lives of all the people of the Commonwealth.

The Charter also acknowledges the role of civil society in supporting the goals and values of the Commonwealth.

Reaffirming the core values and principles of the Commonwealth as declared by their Charter:

· 1. Democracy

· 2. Human rights

· 3. International peace and security

· 4. Tolerance, respect and understanding

· 5. Freedom of Expression

· 6. Separation of Powers

· 7. Rule of Law

· 8. Good Governance

· 9. Sustainable Development

· 10. Protecting the Environment

· 11. Access to Health, Education, Food and Shelter

· 12. Gender Equality

· 13. Importance of Young People in the Commonwealth

· 14. Recognition of the Needs of Small States

· 15. Recognition of the Needs of Vulnerable States

· 16. The Role of Civil Society

We are committed to ensuring that the Commonwealth is an effective association, responsive to members’ needs, and capable of addressing the significant global challenges of the future.

We aspire to a Commonwealth that is a strong and respected voice in the world, speaking out on major issues; that strengthens and enlarges its networks; that has a global relevance and profile; and that is devoted to improving the lives of all peoples of the Commonwealth.

Commonwealth, also called Commonwealth of Nations, formerly (1931–49) British Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of sovereign states comprising the United Kingdom and a number of its former dependencies who have chosen to maintain ties of friendship and practical cooperation and who acknowledge the British monarch as symbolic head of their association.

Establishment

The Commonwealth was an evolutionary outgrowth of the British Empire. Contemporaneous with its shedding of mercantilist philosophy, the empire began implementing “responsible government”—i.e., a system under which the governor could act in domestic matters only upon the advice of ministers enjoying the confidence of the elected chamber—in parts of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Ireland in the mid- to late-19th century. These dependent but self-governing states attained growing measures of sovereignty, and their autonomy was subjected only to a British veto. The Imperial Conference of 1926 declared that such states were to be regarded as “autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.” The Statute of Westminster (1931) implemented the decisions made at both that and a subsequent conference, formally allowing each dominion to control its own domestic and foreign affairs and to establish its own diplomatic corps.

Membership and criteria

For a period after the promulgation of the Statute of Westminster, membership in the Commonwealth came on condition of allegiance to the British monarch. But the rapid growth of nationalism from the 1920s in parts of the empire with chiefly non-European populations required a reconsideration of the nature of the Commonwealth. India in particular had been a special case within the British Empire; by title an empire in its own right, it had a viceroy, a separate secretary of state in London, its own army, and even, to a certain degree, its own foreign policy. When India and Pakistan were granted independence in 1947, they became members of the Commonwealth. In 1949 India announced its intention to become a republic, which would have required its withdrawal from the Commonwealth under the existing rules, but at a meeting of Commonwealth heads of government in London in April 1949 it was agreed that India could continue its membership if it accepted the British crown as only “the symbol of the free association” of Commonwealth members. That declaration was the first to drop the adjective British, and thereafter the official name of the organization became the Commonwealth of Nations, or simply the Commonwealth.

India’s grant of independence was the first in a long series of grants, and, as former dependencies attained sovereignty, Commonwealth membership grew dramatically in the second half of the 20th century. Most of the dependent states granted independence chose Commonwealth membership; like India, many opted not to recognize the Crown as head of state. In 1995 Mozambique became the first country granted entry that was never part of the British Empire or under the control of any member. Rwanda, also never part of the British Empire, joined in 2009.

Some states became independent and rejected membership, such as Burma (Myanmar) in 1948. The Commonwealth was also beset by some members opting to withdraw from the organization, as did Ireland (1949), South Africa (1961), and Pakistan (1972), though both South Africa and Pakistan eventually rejoined (the former in 1994 and the latter in 1989).

In addition to independent members, the Commonwealth also comprises dependent territories, which are formally governed by the United Kingdom, Australia, or New Zealand. Most of the older dependencies are colonies. Dependencies include Anguilla, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, and the Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom); Christmas Island, the Cocos Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, and Norfolk Island (Australia); and Niue and Tokelau (New Zealand). The United Kingdom has followed a policy of leading the dependencies toward self-government by creating territorial governments in them. These governments comprise a lawmaking body (often called the legislative council); an executive body (called the executive council), which with the governor is the executive authority; and an independent judiciary. At first government posts are appointive, but an increasing elected element is introduced, as constitutions are altered, until elected officials are made wholly responsible for local affairs. After a colony achieves internal self-government, its legislature may apply to the British Parliament for complete independence. It then decides whether to remain in the Commonwealth.

ECOWAS

The economic Community of West African States was established by the Treaty of Lagos signed by fifteen West African Heads of State and Government in May 28 1975. The treaty of Lagos was initially limited to economic cooperation but emerging political events led to its revision and expansion of scope of cooperation in 1993. Cabo Verde joined in 1976 and Mauritania decided to withdraw in 2000 to join the Arab Maghreb Union. The vision of ECOWAS is to its revision and expansion of scope of cooperation and integration, leading to the establishment of an Economic Union in West Africa in order to raise the living standards of its peoples, to maintain and enhance economic stability, foster relations among member States as well as contribute to the progress and development of the African Continent.

The Revised Treaty of ECOWAS states and the objectives are as follow:

§ the harmonization and co-ordination of national policies and the promotion of integration programmes, projects and activities, particularly in food, agriculture and natural resources, industry, transport and communications, energy, trade, money and finance, taxation, economic reform policies, human resources, education, information, culture, science, technology, services, health, tourism, legal matters;

§ the harmonization and co-ordination of policies for the protection of the environment;

§ the promotion of the establishment of joint production enterprises;

§ the establishment of a common market;

§ the establishment of an economic union through the adoption of common policies in the economic, financial, social and cultural sectors, and the creation of monetary union.

§ The promotion of joint ventures by private sector enterprises and other economic operators, in particular through the adoption of a regional agreement on cross border investments;

§ The adoption of measures for the integration of the private sectors, particularly the creation of an enabling environment to promote small and medium scale enterprises;

§ The establishment of an enabling legal environment;

§ The harmonization of national investment codes leading to the adoption of a single community investment code;

§ The harmonization of standards and measures;

§ The promotion of balanced development of the region, paying attention to the special problems of each member state particularly those of landlocked and small island member States;

§ The encouragement and strengthening of relations and the promotion of the flow of information particularly among rural populations, women and youth organizations and socio-professional organizations such as associations of the media, business men and women, workers, and trade unions;

§ The adoption of a community population policy which takes into account the need for a balance between demographic factors and socio-economic development.

§ Any other activity that member states may decide to undertake jointly with a view to attaining community objectives.

The organizational structure of ECOWAS consists of the following institutions and specialized agencies:

Institutions:

§ The Authority of Heads of State and Government;

§ The Council of Ministers;

§ The Community Parliament;

§ The Economic and Social Council;

§ The Community of Court of Justice;

§ The ECOWAS Commission;

§ The ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID);

§ The West African Health Organization

§ The inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering and Terrorism Financing in West Africa (GIABA).

Specialized Agencies:

§ West African Monetary Agency (WAMA)

§ Regional Agency for Agriculture and Food (RAAF)

§ ECOWAS Regional Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERERA)

§ ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Efficiency (ECREEE)

§ The West African Power Pool (WAPP) ECOWAS BROWN CARD

§ ECOWAS Gender Development Centre (EGDC)

§ ECOWAS Youth and Sports Development Centre (EYSDC)

§ West African Monetary Institute (WAMI)

§ ECOWAS infrastructure Projects Preparation and Development Unit (PPDU)

§ The member States of ECOWAS are: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Cote d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. https://www.uneca.org/oria/pages/ecowas-economic-community-west-african-states

PROBLEMS THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES

Language barrier

There are three languages used for communication within the ECOWAS bloc - English, French and Portuguese. For easy communication among members there is the need for individuals in the region to be able to speak these languages but this is proving to be difficult. This has necessitated the use of interpreters to make people understand each other at summits of the Community.

Widespread Poverty

Many of the member states of ECOWAS are among the poorest of the poor nations in the world. Many of their citizens earn less that a dollar a day. This, in a certain sense is preventing real economic integration of the sub-region while many continue to live in squalor and deprivation.

Human Rights Abuses

Another problem of the ECOWAS group is the penchant of the member states to abuse the human rights of their citizens. The human rights records of some member states are nothing to write home about. Champions of human rights abuse have cited member states on many occasions over their human rights abuse. Togo was ever cited, Nigeria under Sanni Abacha has ever been cited. This is a problem for ECOWAS.

Financial Problems

The aims and objectives of the ECOWAS can only be achieved when the financial base of the community is solid. However, some member states are not able to honour their financial obligations to the community. This is one problem that has bedeviled the community over the years, especially when it comes to the running of the affairs of the community.

Strong External Influence

Many of the member states of ECOWAS were former colonies of some former colonial powers. Countries such as Britain, France and Portugal ever had a colony or two that now belong to the ECOWAS group. These member states are still controlled, to a certain extent, by their former colonial masters. The influence of these colonial masters, in some cases, is so strong that, they are able to determine the direction of their votes at summit meetings on issues that are not in the interest of the former masters.

Single currency

One of the aims of the community is to establish a monetary union for the entire region. This was aimed at culminating into a single currency for ECOWAS member states. However, the member states have not been able to meet the convergence criteria, all at the same time for the single currency to be issued. This has made the attainment of that goal a mirage, though efforts continue to be made towards its achievement.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES

Promotion of Trade

One of the achievements of ECOWAS is that it has promoted intra-West African trade among member countries. This has contributed to economic growth in the sub-region.

Roads Projects

Another achievement of ECOWAS is the improvement of the road network in the sub-region. One major road project the ECOWAS can be lauded for is the Abidjan-Lagos High Way starting from Elubo through Aflao to Lagos. It can also be congratulated for the Lagos-Nouakchott High way project.

The elimination of Francophone-Anglophone divide

The ECOWAS has afforded both the Anglophone and the Francophone countries within the sub-region an official platform to discuss issues of the sub-region. This has helped to tone down the suspicion and lack of trust between the English and French speaking countries in West Africa.

Communication

Another achievement of ECOWAS is achievement of a direct telephone communication among member states of the community. Hitherto, direct communication among the various states was absent. Telephone connections were routed through Europe before connecting to another West African country. All these have been largely eliminated.

Free Movement of Persons

One of the aims of ECOWAS was to ensure the free movement of persons, goods and services, unhindered within the sub-region. This has been largely successful. A citizen of a member country with valid documents could reside in another member state for a maximum of ninety days without a visa.

Peace and Security

ECOWAS has largely achieved peace and security in the West African sub-region. The establishment of the ECOWAS Monitoring Group has helped to deploy troops to ensure peace in war ravaged areas of the sub-region.

ECOWAS Summits

The ECOWAS has regularly organized summits which were attended by Heads of member states. At these summits, the problems of the sub-region were tabled for discussions and solutions recommended.