LESSON NOTE FOR SSE 106 DEGREE 1OO LEVEL 2021

 

POL 106: Introduction to Nigerian Cultural Environment

Course Content/Course Outline

Man as the focus of Social Studies, Socialization, Agencies and Institutions; marriage, religion, legal and civic obligations are rights and responsibilities.

What is Culture?

Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.

A culture is a way of life of a group of people; the behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.

Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a group's skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.

Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon further action.

Culture is the sum of total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to generation.

Man as the focus of social studies

Social studies focused on man and his interactions with his environment. It also keeps on changing because of the factors of time and human development. It fights against evil vices in the society. The subject considers peculiar problems of a country and finds solutions to those problems. As such the objective of Nigerian social studies must reflect the spirit of Nigerian philosophy of education. It must help to develop the capacity to learn and to acquire certain basic skills of listening, speaking, reading, writing and calculation. Social studies education focuses on the use of critical and reflective thinking to solve the problems of man’s survival in the environment.

Social studies is the study of people in relation to each other and to their world. It is an issue focused and inquiry-based interdisciplinary subject that draws upon history, geography, ecology, economics, law, philosophy, political science and other social science disciplines.  Social studies foster students’ understanding of and involvement in practical and ethical issues that face their communities and humankind.  Social studies is integral to the process of enabling students to develop an understanding of who they are, what they want to become and the society in which they want to live. (https://education.alberta.ca/media/159594/program-of-studies-k-3.pdf)

 It is a course of study that deals with human relationships and the way society works. Or the studies (as civics, history, and geography) that deal with human relationships and the way society works. It builds critical-thinking skills and deepens content-area knowledge across the four strands of social studies: history, civics, geography, and economics and man is not left out it is the man that thinks critically, acquires skills and knowledge.

Social Studies goes about facilitating an understanding of the complexity of man, his problems, challenges and solutions, by using anal–out learning technique and strategy known as “Integration”. It is necessary for us to know this for proper understanding of social studies. Social Studies, as a discipline, it is no longer an appendage of the Social Sciences. The discipline which has gone a long way in emerging as a distinctive area of learning, the time or those days when it was treated as “a bit of history”, “a bit of geography” has gone. It is no longer a mixture or” hotchpotch”, a confused addition of bits and pieces of the Social Sciences and Humanities. This was sometimes referred to as “inter-disciplinary” form of teaching but not now.

Social studies is a corrective study because it is a subject which is concerned with the problems of man’s living in the society with a view of finding solutions to those problems. It is also a subject which concentrates on the three (3) areas of knowledge, cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. It centers on the development of man, how man influences his environment and how the environment influences him in return.

The concept of socialization

Socialization otherwise known as ‘ internalization of culture’ is a lifelong process by which human beings transmit and learn particular thought, feeling and behaviour processes and patterns required for social perpetuation of, social adaptation to, and social transformation of, culturally determined conditioned and expectations, such as learning ones language, behaving according to the norms and values of the culture, understanding social roles one is expected to perform as one relate to others, and developing complex skills and techniques with which to adapt to as well as transform ones social and physical environment.   

Socialization is a learning process that begins shortly after birth.  Early childhood is the period of the most intense and the most crucial socialization.  It is then that we acquire language and learn the fundamentals of our culture.  It is also when much of our personality takes shape. 

 However, we continue to be socialized throughout our lives.  As we age, we enter new statuses and need to learn the appropriate roles for them.  We also have experiences that teach us lessons and potentially lead us to alter our expectations, beliefs, and personality.  For instance, the experience of being raped is likely to cause a woman to be distrustful of others especially men.

Human infants are born without any culture.  They must be transformed by their parents, teachers, and others into cultural and socially adept animals.  The general process of acquiring culture is referred to as socialization.  During socialization, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as the roles we are to play in life.  For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters, friends, wives, and mothers.  In addition, they learn about the occupational roles that their society has in stock for them.  We also learn and usually adopt our culture's norms through the socialization process. 

Types of socialization

 Children are socialized according to different cultures we have two broad types of teaching methods--formal and informal.  Formal education is what primarily happens in a classroom.  It is usually structured, controlled, and directed primarily by adult teachers who are professionals.  In contrast, informal education can occur anywhere.  It involves imitation of what others do and say as well as experimentation and repetitive practice of basic skills.  This is what happens when children role-play adult interactions in their games.

Women and girls are the most crucial in socializing children.  Initially, mothers and their female relatives are primarily responsible for socialization.  Later, when children enter the lower school grades, they are usually under the control of their teachers. Even seemingly insignificant actions of parents can have major impacts on the socialization of their children. 

We also have primary and secondary socialization

Primary socialization: the primary aspect of socialization is the family this is where the children learn how to socialize with the family and are being thought the values and norms of the society. A well brought up child can never deviate from those norms that were being transferred to as a child. We can also see the primary socialization as those ones got from the nursery and primary school, at this stage the child is very tender and sees her teacher as a role model. The child sees the teacher as the most educated even when the parents are more educated than the teacher still the child believes in the teacher and values the teacher’s education more than the parents.

Secondary Socialization: when we talk about the secondary socialization our mind should go to school a bit higher than the nursery and primary school. At this stage we can say that the child has passed the stage of infantry.  It is an adolescent stage, a stage we call crisis stage. This time the child wants to be independent. He or she would like to confide in his/her friend. They also see themselves as an adult.  The child has known what is right or wrong. The child also can challenge the teacher in terms of knowledge. It is at this stage that the child meets peer groups that are very strong and can influence them. This stage a well brought up child can be influenced by the peers. Those that can be influenced are those that do not have strong self will. Most of the times are children from broken homes (divorced) or those from a quarrelsome family where the father and the mother fights every day, and some families that have some lapses. This stage is a critical stage for children in taking decision or making choice.

Adult socialization: is a part of secondary socialization; this has to do with grownups socializing with friends. Socialization has no end we continue to socialize with people until we die. As an adult there are stages of adulthood: the early adulthood, the middle adulthood, and the aging years. According to Atkinson, Atkinson and Hilgard (1983: 98 ):

During the early adult years, people commit themselves to an occupation, and many will marry or form other types of intimate relationships. Intimacy means an ability to care about others and to share experiences with them. People who cannot commit themselves to a loving relationship – because they fear being hurt or are unable to share – risk being isolated. Studies indicate that an intimate relationship with a supportive partner contributes significantly to a person’s emotional and physical health. People who have someone to share their ideas feeling, and problems with are happier and healthier than those who do not have (Traupmann And Hatfield, 1981).  At this stage as the men and women marry they begin to procreate. As they have children the women divert their attention more on the children than the husband and life goes on.

Middle adulthood: is also part of secondary socialization; they further explained that for many people, the middle years of adulthood (roughly ages 40-65) are the most productive period. Men in their forties are usually at the peak of their careers. Women have less responsibility at home now that the children are growing up and can devote more time to career or civic activities. This is the age group that essentially runs society, in terms of both power and responsibility. As people approach their fifties, they change their view of life span. They begin to think in terms of years left to live. For some people who have spent their years building a successful company may leave it to return to school. For women that have developed their family may develop a new career or become active in politics. Some people at this stage may decide to live the city and retire to the village. Based on stages in life we see the angle or direction where socialization is being channeled to.

The aging years: still serves as secondary socialization; this is the year after 65years whereby new problems arises, as declining from physical strength and facing all sorts of sickness that demoralizes them and leave them in a state of helplessness.  This time is period of loneliness and less feeling of worth and self-esteem. The aged are also faced with loss of spouse, siblings, and relations which can make their life uncomfortable. The farness of their children also affects them. The type of socialization at this time is people coming for an advice and blessing. They also socialize with the children by telling those stories of the past and folk lore. Socialization has no end it continues until we die. That is why we say that it is for a lifelong. Old age is time of reflection that deeply looked into how the person faces the end of life. 

 Anticipatory socialization:  this refers to a process by which men learn the culture of a group with the anticipation of joining that group or belonging to the group. People learns the proper beliefs, values and norms of a status or group to which he aspires this is learning how to ach with his new role. It is also under secondary socialization as well as re-socialization.

 Re-socialization:  refers to the process of discarding the former behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as part of transition in one’s life. This type of socialization takes place mostly when a social role is radically changed. It has to do with abandonment of one way of life for another which is not only different from the former but incompatible with it. For instance when an armed robber is rehabilitated his role changed radically.

Agents of socialization (Family, peer group, school, mass media, church, mosque, etc)

Socialization is a process by which culture is transmitted to the younger generation and men learn the rules and practices of social groups to which they belong. Through it a society maintains its social system. Personalities do not come ready made. The process that transforms a child into a reasonably respectable human being is a long process.

1. Family:  the family plays an outstanding role in the socialization process. In all societies other agencies besides the family contribute to socialization such as educational institutions, the peer group etc. but family plays the most important role in the formation of personality. By the time other agencies contribute to this process family has already left an imprint on the personality of the child. The parents use both reward and punishment to imbibe what is socially required from a child.

According to Robert, K. Merton, “it is the family which is a major transmission belt for the diffusion of cultural standards to the oncoming generation “The family serves as “the natural and convenient channel of social continuity.

2. Peer Group: peer group members a group in which the members share some common characteristics such as age or sex etc. it is made up of the contemporaries of the child, his associates in school, in play ground and in street. The growing child learns some very important lessons from his peer group. Since members of the peer group are at the same stage of socialization they freely and spontaneously interact with each other.

Conflict arises when standards of the peer group differ from the standards of the child family. He may consequently attempt to withdraw from the family environment. The peer group surpasses the parental influence as time goes on. This seems to be an inevitable occurrence in rapidly changing societies.

3. Religion

Religion plays a very important role in socialization. Religion instills the fear of hell in the individual so that he should refrain from bad and undesirable activities. Religion not only makes people religious but socializes them into the secular order.

4. Educational institutions: parents and peer groups are not the only agencies of the socialization in modern societies. Every civilized society therefore has developed a set of formalized agencies of education (schools, colleges and universities) which have a great bearing on the socialization process. It is in the educational institutions that the culture is formally transmitted and acquired in which the science and the art of one generation passed on to the next.

In this way, the educational institutions come next to the family for the purpose of socialization of the growing child. Educational institution is a very important socialization and the means by which individual acquires social norms and values (values of achievement civic ideals, solidarity and group loyalty etc) beyond those which are available for learning in the family and other groups.

5. Occupation: in the occupational world the individual finds himself with new shared interests and goals. He makes adjustments with the position he holds and also learns to make adjustment with other workers who may occupy equal or higher or lower position.

While working, the individual enters into relations of cooperation, involving specialization of tasks and at the same time learns the nature of class divisions. Work, for him, is a source of income but at the same time it gives identity and status within society as a whole.

6. Political Parties: political parties attempt to seize political power and maintain it. They try to win the support of the members of the society on the basis of a socio-economic policy and programme. In the process they disseminate political values and norms and socialize the citizen. The political parties socialize the citizen for stability and change of political system.

7. Mass Media: The mass media is for communication particularly television which play an important role in the process of socialization. The mass media of communication transmit information and messages which influence the personality of an individual to a great extent. In addition to this it have an important effect in encouraging individual to support the existing norms and values or oppose or change them. They are the instrument of social power. They influence us with their messages. The words are always written by someone and these people too authors and editors and advertisers join the teachers the peers and the parents in the socialization process.  

 Processes of socialization

 Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them. The children internalize whatever was thought to them at this stage. The process operates at two levels, one with the infant which is called the internalization of objects around and the other from the outside. Socialization may be seen as the internalization of social norms. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Social rules become internalized by the individual, in the sense that they are self-imposed by means of external regulation which is part of individual personality.  

 Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others -- from infancy. This process of socialization is looked as essential element of social interaction. This has to do with the individual becoming socialized with the accordance of the social norms which is the expectation of others. Socialization is filed up with social interactions. Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon; and all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad features: It is wise to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization and weave them into our lives.

 Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities.

Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to "teach us a lesson;" and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us. There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization; and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be -- especially if we learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, defeated or pessimistic about life. Through the process of socialization individuals becomes a social person and can attain his or her personality.

Child rearing and Education: When children reach the age of about four or five, they often are expected to start performing a share of the household duties. As the children get older, their responsibilities grow. Young men are expected to help their fathers in the fields or tend the livestock. Young women help with the cooking, fetch water, or do laundry. These tasks help the children learn how to become productive members of their family and community. As children, many Nigerians learn that laziness is not acceptable; everyone is expected to contribute.

All Nigerian children are supposed to have access to a local elementary school. While the government aims to provide universal education for both boys and girls, the number of girls in class is usually much lower than the number of boys. But nowadays the girls outnumber the boys. Recently like community with business enterprise boys in that area prefers going to learn trade to get quick money. You will find out that boys in Igbo land are no longer interested in schooling rather what interest them most is how to get rich. Sending every child in a family to school can often put a lot of strain on a family.

The family will lose the child's help around the house during school hours and will have to pay for uniforms and supplies. If parents are forced to send one child to school over another, many will choose to educate boys before girls. But recently Nigerians especially in Igbo land has found out the importance of training girl’s child. It is said train a woman and you train a nation. It is only women that will remember their parents when they are old. Even though some of the boys may remember their parents at old age but they are not rampant; immediately a young man falls in love with a young woman anything concerning the in-law becomes his problem.

Infant Care: Newborns in Nigerian societies are regarded with pride. They represent a community's and a family's future and often are the main reason for many marriages. Throughout Nigeria, the bond between mother and child is very strong. During the first few years of a child's

life, the mother is never far away. Nigerian women place great importance on breast-feeding and the bond that it creates between mother and child. Children are often not weaned off their mother's milk until they are toddlers.

Children who are too young to walk or get around on their own are carried on their mother's backs, secured by a broad cloth that is tied around the baby and fastened at the mother's breasts. Women will often carry their children on their backs while they perform their daily chores or work in the fields.

Marriage

What is marriage?

Marriage is a union between a man and a woman such that the children born to the woman are recognize as legitimate offspring of both parents (Royal Anthropological Institute 1951). Marriage is not always between a man and a woman since it can be between a man and many wives (polygyny) or between a woman and two or more men (polyandry). Let’s take some example from Western Europe or America, recently they have recognized gay marriage which is same sex therefore marriage is no longer between a man and a woman but to a man and a man and a woman and a woman. So in African tradition it is an abomination and we must not buy these idea.

Marriage according to Giddens and Dunnier (2000) it is “a socially acknowledged and approved sexual union between two adult individual.”  This type of marriage has no legal backing or should be frowned at and even criticized; in an African content and even morally, it is unacceptable but may be acceptable to those who called themselves civilized nation. Furthermore the definition has no room for polygyny and polyandry indicating that it has no room for polygamy which is an umbrella word for the two (polygyny and polyandry). Having felt the purse of some scholars it can be seen that there is no uniform umbrella that defined marriage to be exactly one acceptable definition so it varies and depends on how society views it.

Let us delve into our Christian, Islamic, Hindu and African traditional faith concerning their views about marriage.

The Bible Defines Marriage as a Covenant

The marriage ceremony, therefore, is meant to be a public demonstration of a couple's commitment to a covenant relationship. ... For Christians, marriage goes beyond the earthly covenant also, as a divine picture of the relationship between Christ and his Bride, the Church (www.learnreligions.com>....> The new Testament).

The purpose of marriage in the bible is that: It is the union between Christ and his people, as one flesh. Such companionship and intimacy is a profound gift to be marveled at and enjoyed, bringing contentment and happiness. And in so enjoying, we bring glory to him the creator of perhaps the greatest gift ever.

In Etymology the word "marriage" derives from Middle English marriage, which first appears in 1250–1300 CE. This, in turn, is derived from Old French, marier (to marry), and ultimately Latin, marītāre, meaning to provide with a husband or wife and marītāri meaning to get married.

In Islam, marriage is a legal contract between a man and a woman. Both the groom and the bride are to consent to the marriage of their own free wills. ... There is also Nikah Misyar, a non-temporary marriage with the removal of some conditions such as living together, permitted by some Sunni scholars. For further enquiry consult or read (Islamic marital jurisprudence · ‎Islamic marriage contract · ‎Category: Marriage in Islam).

Moreover, Islam, marriage is recognized as the basis of society. It is a contract but it is also a sacred covenant. Marriage as an institution leads to the uplift of man and is a means for the continuance of the human race. Most Muslims believe marriage is a fundamental building block of life. Marriage is a contract between a man and woman to live together as husband and wife. ... For most Muslims the purpose of marriage is to: keep faithful to each other for the rest of their lives, have children and bring them up in the Muslim faith.

 (www.bbc.co.uk>bitesize>guide>zcjqrws>revision)

 

There are three types of marriage namely:

·         Religious marriage,

·         Civil or statutory marriage,

·         and Traditional marriage or

·         Customary marriage

Religious marriages: usually Christian or Muslim, are conducted according to the norms of the religious marriage, respective religious teachings and take place in a church or a mosque. Christian males are allowed only one wife, while Muslim men can take up to four wives. Religious wedding as one of the four forms of marriage in Nigeria. Each type has its own tradition and rules that strictly depend on the religion and law. To better describe the religious marriage in Nigeria; let’s get into details of the Islamic and Christian law marriage types. The Islamic wedding traditions - this religious form of wedding has some similar features to customary tradition. Islamic marriage allows polygamous relationship where a husband can marry up to 4 wives. A wife doesn’t have such a right. Sometimes the father of the family can follow his ijbar right. This is the wedding agreement which he concludes on behalf of his female children even without their permission. These rules are described under the Maliki law. The grown-up kid, however, still has the right to reject such a marriage contract. The Islamic marriage requires parental consent as well as Muslim witnesses. Besides, the family of the bride gets the ‘bride price’ paid by her future husband’s family.

 Christian wedding customs: This ceremony is different from the Islamic wedding. The Christian marriage is monogamous. It follows some important features such as close family relationship, the processional, prayer etc. The ceremony usually includes a lot of people, parents and grandparents of the couple, relatives and friends. The two major parts of the tradition are the processional and a prayer that is done publicly in front of all the guests. The Christian wedding is performed by the priest. The bride and groom vow to support each other always, share their own wedding promises and exchange rings. The final part is the blessing the happily married couple and the kiss between the couple. Now the newly-wedded couple can celebrate their wedding with their guests outside of the church. ( https://www.legit.ng/1141607-four-forms-marriage-nigeria.html)

Civil or statutory marriage: Civil official weddings take place in a government registry office. Men are allowed only one wife under a civil wedding, regardless of religion. This is the legal marriage described by the official Marriage Act (this document specifies all the requirements necessary for an official marriage celebration in Nigeria). It is only possible between a man and a woman and this union is monogamous. What does it mean? A statutory wedding is a voluntary marriage between two people who are in love with the exclusion of other people for the whole period while it officially lasts. The Marriage Act outlines some important details about the marriage. Firstly, there is an age limit. Only men and women who are 21 years old or older can marry without their parents’ permission. Citizens who are under the specified age that chooses to marry without a written agreement of their guardians or parents could end up in prison for 2 years. Other requirements and rules are also specified by the statutory marriage. Anyone who has been married to someone already cannot marry another person by statutory law unless they legally divorce the other spouse via the court system.  Sometimes exceptional circumstances are considered under the Marriage Act. However, all these situations can only be discussed with the Judge and approved by the Judge. Any official church’s Minister can conduct the statutory wedding ceremony. It can take place in legit places of worship or in the Registry as long as the couple can provide the marriage certificate or license that authorizes their marriage. (https://www.legit.ng/1141607-four-forms-marriage-nigeria.html).

Traditional marriages usually are held at the wife's house and are performed according to the customs of the ethnic group involved. Most ethnic groups traditionally allow more than one wife. Traditional wedding - this form of marriage is a bit different from customary ceremony but it also has so many similarities. For example, the groom and bride have to wear their traditional attires. Their wedding ceremony follows all the traditions of the tribe, state or ethnic region of the couple. There is always an Introduction Ceremony when the family of the groom visits the house of the bride and receives a long list of gifts called dowry. This list can include wedding clothing, jewelry, shoes, food, drinks etc. All these presents are to be brought by the groom's family to the engagement ceremony to demonstrate that the bride has great value to her man. It is interesting that all these gifts can be rejected by the women from the bride’s family. If this happens, the engagement can be postponed. The traditional wedding ceremony usually includes a large number of people. The couple invites siblings, parents, and other loved ones, and the bride’s family decides where the marriage takes place. The ceremony can last from a couple of hours to seven days. It all depends on the traditions followed by the two families that seek to unite their children in a happy love-based union. The celebration includes dancing, eating, and drinking. Besides, the traditional wedding is usually followed by the official church wedding. Each traditional wedding is a big event in Nigeria. It is important to both families and that is why the ceremony is usually a grand celebration that involves a lot of guests.

Customary marriage: There are a lot of interesting wedding customs and traditions celebrated by different ethnic communities in Nigeria. Such celebrations are known as customary marriage. While each ethnic group can respect its specific customs, there are generally accepted traditions that are common for all the communities. This type of wedding is a union of a woman and a man as well as their families. Customary wife becomes a real member of her husband’s family even though her husband isn’t recognized as her own family member in the same way. Still, there is an enduring relationship between the two families. Customary wedding status is different from the statutory marriage which is officially monogamous. Unlike the latter, the customary law recognizes the polygamous marriage system. In other words, one customary husband can be married to more than one wife.

The marriages under customary law in Nigeria have no limit to how many wives one husband can marry. However, many couples choose to marry under both customary and statutory laws and this means their union can only be monogamous. Usually, the future husband gives different kinds of gifts to his future wife’s family. It could be money, jewelry, property or something else. There is even the ‘bride price’ which refers to a kind of payment that a potential husband and his family has to give the woman’s family otherwise the customary marriage cannot hold. There are also some traditions that have to be followed: witnesses drink sharing libation pouring handing the bride over to the groom and his family different solemnization activities. Mutual agreement between a couple and the parental consent are two must-have conditions for the customary wedding ceremony to be legit. The customary marriage law doesn’t specify any age restrictions in Nigeria. This means that even a child could possibly be married under this law. And this was a big problem in the country until 2003. That year the Child’s Right Act was officially passed. This important document states that the only type of marriage allowed in Nigeria must be between people who are at least 18 years old.

Divorce is quite common in Nigeria. Marriage is more of a social contract made to ensure the continuation of family lines rather than a union based on love and emotional connections. It is not uncommon for a husband and wife to live in separate homes and to be extremely independent of one another. In most ethnic groups, either the man or the woman can end the marriage. If the woman leaves her husband, she will often be taken as a second or third wife of another man. If this is the case, the new husband is responsible for repaying the bride price to the former husband. Children of a divorced woman are normally accepted into the new family as well, without any problems.

Hinduism Marriage

Many Hindus see marriage as a life-long, sacred ceremony that binds a man and woman together. It takes the Hindu couple into the second ashrama and is believed by many to be the right situation in which to have children. Marriage is also viewed by many Hindus as the right place in which to enjoy sexual pleasure, which is allowed as part of the life aim of kama. Many Hindu deities are portrayed as having partners and children:

v  Shiva and Parvati are the parents of Lord Ganesh

v  Rama and Sita had twins called Luv and Kush.

However, not all relationships in Hindu scriptures are conventional; in the Mahabharata, Draupadi is married to all five Pandava princes.

Vivah Sansksar is the term used to describe the sacraments performed during the wedding ceremony. This symbolizes that the marriage is an important stage of life and will mark the beginning of a life-long union.( https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zh732sg/revision/6)

Arranged marriage

Traditionally, arranged marriages began from a need to find husbands and wives for those living in poverty and in villages. Travel was rare and people soon ran out of people to marry they were not related to.

Hindu teachings forbid people marrying anyone less than seven genetic steps removed; this means they cannot marry even distant cousins. This is taken seriously and the first thing many Hindus check about a suitable partner is whether they are related - even distantly. In the past, research relied on information from travelers or visitors about people in other villages. Sometimes, marriages would be arranged without the couple meeting beforehand, because they couldn't afford to travel.

Another motivation was that parents wanted to create a second family for their children, in case they died while the children were still young. A marriage may have been arranged while the children were very young

According to William Abraham (1987: 22): Marriage in African tradition is the joining of two families through the union of one man and one woman and their children, always to the exclusion of all other men as regards the woman, and in monogamous societies, to the exclusion of all other women as regards the man.

 Traditional marriage according to the historical norms of a given society is usually for the primary purpose of establishing a family. Although prenuptial customs vary in different cultures, a traditional marriage generally follows a period of courtship, public announcement of wedding plans, and a wedding ceremony.

It is also a marriage of husband and wife, wherein the former is the primary or sole breadwinner and the latter holds primary or sole responsibility for maintaining the home and managing child care.  (APA dictionary of Psychology,2020).

Marriage can be defined as the socially approved sexual union of two or more opposite adults and whose off springs are considered legitimate (Akpochafo, 2014).

 

Some common attributes of marriage

1.      Has to do with the involvement of males and females or persons of the opposite sex who have agreed to take each other as husband and wife;

 

2.      Some groups (especially the Catholic Church) is of the view that marriage is indissoluble but others believed that they can divorce and it is recognizable.

 

3.      The union allows for sexual interaction that may or not lead to the raising of children

 

4.      Marriage has to do with confirmation of certain rights and responsibilities

 

5.      Marriage connects together a wide range of people by creating kinship, parents, brothers, sisters, blood relatives of the partners and may even lead to connecting even communities, states and countries.

 

6.      It gives rights to each other’s sexuality, labour and property. To further buttress this idea it is the duty of the couple to satisfy each other sexually and should own things in common that is to say that what belongs the man equally belongs to the wife and vice versa.

 

Types of Marriage

                                                                   

Marriages are of different types based on the number and kinds of men and women involved in it, such as:

 

v  Polygyny: marriage between one woman and two or more men.

 

Polyandry: marriage between one woman and two or more men. The two best-known areas in which polyandry was studied and continued to be practiced into the 21st century are the Plateau of Tibet (a region shared by India, Nepal, and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China) and the Marquesas Islands in the South Pacific.

 

v  Polygamy: the practice or custom of having more than one wife or husband at the same time.

 

v  Fraternal Polyandry:  it a marriage in which several brothers share one wife. Example it is practiced among Tibetans in Nepal and parts of China, in which two or more brothers are married to the same wife, with the wife having equal "sexual access" to them.

 

v  Sororal Polyandry: marriage in which many sisters shares a particular man as their husband.

 

v  Levirate: marriage between a man and the widow of his elder brother

 

v  Sororate: marriage between a man and the sister of his dead wife

 

Ghost marriage: is marriage with a dead person or between dead people. In Chinese tradition, a ghost marriage is a marriage in which one or both parties are deceased. Other forms of ghost marriage are practiced worldwide, notably in France since 1959. The origins of Chinese ghost marriage are largely unknown, but reports of it being practiced today can still be found. Also in South Sudan, a ghost marriage is a marriage where a deceased groom is replaced by his brother. The brother serves as a stand in to the bride, and any resulting children are considered children of the deceased spouse. Under French law posthumous marriages are possible as long as evidence exists that the deceased person had the intention while alive of wedding their partner. ... According to Christophe Caput, the mayor who married Jaskiewicz, her request was "rock solid".

Child marriage: Child Marriage is defined as a marriage of a girl or boy before the age of 18 and refers to both formal marriages and informal unions in which children under the age of 18 live with a partner as if married. ... Child marriage violates children's rights and places them at high risk of violence, exploitation, and abuse. Giving a daughter in marriage allows parents to reduce family expenses by ensuring they have one less person to feed, clothe and educate. Families may also see investing in their son's education as more worthwhile investment. That is the purpose of child marriage.

Child Marriage is defined as a marriage of a girl or boy before the age of 18 and refers to both formal marriages and informal unions in which children under the age of 18 live with a partner as if married. Child marriage affects both girls and boys, but it affects girls disproportionately, especially in South Asia.

South Asia has the highest rates of child marriage in the world. Almost half (45%) of all women aged 20-24 years reported being married before the age of 18. Almost one in five girls (17%) is married before the age of 15. Child marriage violates children’s rights and places them at high risk of violence, exploitation, and abuse. India has the largest number of brides in the world – one-third of the global total. Bangladesh has the highest rate of child marriage in Asia (the fourth highest rate in the world). Nepal has also one the highest rates of child marriage in Asia for both boys and girls. Child marriage is declining (63% in 1985 to 45%t in 2010) in South Asia, with the decline being especially marked for girls under 15 (32% in 1985 to 17% in 2010). The marriage of girls aged 15-18 is however still commonplace, so more efforts are needed to protect older adolescents from marriage. Child marriage is the result of the interplay of economic and social forces. In communities where the practice is prevalent, marrying a girl as a child is part of a cluster of social norms and attitudes that reflect the low value accorded to the human rights of girls. UNICEF’s approach to ending child marriage in South Asia recognises the complex nature of the problem, and the socio-cultural and structural factors underpinning the practice. 

Solution for Child marriage

 

UNICEF’s approach to ending child marriage in South Asia recognises the complex nature of the problem, and the socio-cultural and structural factors underpinning the practice. UNICEF’s approach, therefore, envisions success in two timeframes. In the short term (5-10 years), UNICEF sees a critical mass of children, families, and communities changing their attitudes and behaviours; in the longer term (10-30 years), UNICEF sees aspirations for all children upheld by new social norms UNICEF considers five entry points to accelerate these changes:

(i)                 to increase agency and resources for adolescents – especially girls- at risk of and affected by child marriage;

 

(ii)                (ii) to enhance legal and development policy frameworks for an enabling environment that protects the rights of adolescent girls and boys;

 

(iii)             (iii) to increase the generation and use of a robust evidence base for advocacy, programming, learning and tracking progress;

 

(iv)             (iv) to enhance systems and services that respond to the needs of adolescents at risk of or affected by child marriage; and

 

(v)                (v) to increase social action, acceptance, and visibility around investing in and supporting girls, and shifting social expectations relating to girls, including by engaging boys and men. At the global level, child marriage is included in Goal 5 “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” under Target 5.3 “Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation”.

 

In 2016, UNICEF and UNFPA joined forces through a Global Programme to Accelerate Action to End Child Marriage in 12 countries with the highest rates of child brides. In South Asia, it is implemented in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. For the first time, existing strategies in areas like health, education, child protection and water and sanitation, are coming together to form a unique holistic programme with shared plans and goals. The programme will work in partnership woth governments, civil society organizations and yound people themselves and adopt methods that have proven to work at scale. (https://www.unicef.org/rosa/what-we-do/child-protection/child-marriage).

 

Cousin marriage: A cousin marriage is a marriage where the spouses are cousins (i.e. people with common grandparents or people who share other fairly recent ancestors). Worldwide, more than 10% of marriages are between first and second cousins. Marrying within a family can lead to abnormalities in your future offspring. This is because within a family, certain genetic traits remain dormant and are known as recessive genes (they are not seen as a disease or condition).

 Conflict in Marriage

Conflict in marriage is inevitable. In fact, not only is conflict in marriage inevitable, but it is also perfectly normal. It is a part of life.

 

Conflicts are bound to arise in terms of relationship in marriage. Conflict is said to be natural to human nature. This same conflict strengthens or tightens relationship in marriage. Clashes of interest lead to conflict. Every normal human being is bound to encounter conflict.

Marital conflict is not just a difference of opinion. Rather, it is a series of events that have been poorly managed so as to deeply damage the marriage relationship. The issues of marriage have festered to the point that stubbornness, pride, anger, hurt and bitterness prevent effective marriage communication.

 Researchers also have identified several major sources of conflict, i.e., violent behaviors of husbands, lack of cooperation in the family, inability to spend enough time together, issues related to children and other families, lack of effective communication, and financial problems.

We have various common problems in marriage such as:

v  Communication gap:  Most families complain about the way the spouse treat each other when it comes to communication. Bearing grudges can only lead to worsening the situation. Most men and women are complicated some refuse to bare their mind to the extent that they use silence measure to suffer each other. Lack of communication has caused one partner losing his or her life when in need of the other is urgently needed. Some persons with critical ailment need not to run out of communication, dialogue is the only solution for a happy family.

 

v  Ignominy: Every human being wants to be respected and be treated with high regard. No one enjoys shunning down or disgraced. Showing I don’t care attitude is a big problem in modern day marriage. More especially when the two have a mouth watering job. In this case nobody cares. Caring is the most important thing in marriage. The scripture says wife, be submissive to your husband and husband love your wife (Ephesians 5: 22 - 33). It's not uncommon for one spouse to try to change his or her partner but it should be handled with love and care.

 

v  Lack of Sexual Intimacy and satisfaction: a lot of reasons couples lose interest in sex ranging from medical problems to emotional issues.  Generally, sexual problems trigger a vicious cycle where it’s difficult to want sex when you feel emotionally distant from your partner and it’s difficult to feel emotionally attached without experiencing sexual intimacy. To get past sexual indifference, couples need to discuss and resolve their emotional issues.

 

v  Emotional or Sexual Infidelity

 

v   Fighting About Money

v  Selfishness

 

v  Value Differences

 

v  Different Life Stages.

(https://collaborativedivorcetexas.com/ten-common-problems-marriage/)

 

RELIGION

Current definition of religion especially those of theological character are usually expressed in terms of belief. Sometimes religion is defined in terms of feeling, and sometimes in terms of conduct or conation, but the popular idea is that religion and belief are identical. James Martineau for instance defined religion as the belief in an ever living God that is a Devine mind and will ruling the universe and holding moral relations with mankind; Bishop Buttler, sees religion as the belief in one God or creator and moral Governor of the world and in a future state of retribution implying immorality and many writers among whom is the philosopher Immanuel Kant have made the belief in immortality the soul basis of religion.

Theology however, is not the only science which identifies religion with belief. Looking at the ethnographical side we find the same mistaken conception as a belief. De’ Quatrefages Letourneau, Topinard, Sir, John Lubbock and Prof. E.B. Tylor to mention only a few of these writers all defined religion in terms of belief. Moreso, Mr Herbert Spencer, calls it "an a priori theory of the Universe” bases religion upon the intellectual elements. It should be agreed that knowledge of belief is an element. In religion as a more or less specific beliefs is an in all religion as specific belief-for instance, the belief in God, in immortality , or in spiritual beings-we not only recognize an intellectual  element in religion but we make religion synonymous with a particular form of belief.

Religion: human beings’ relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, absolute, spiritual, divine, or worthy of especial reverence. It is also commonly regarded as consisting of the way people deal with ultimate concerns about their lives and their fate after death. In many traditions, this relation and these concerns are expressed in terms of one’s relationship with or attitude toward gods or spirits; in more humanistic or naturalistic forms of religion, they are expressed in terms of one’s relationship with or attitudes toward the broader human community or the natural world. In many religions, texts are deemed to have scriptural status, and people are esteemed to be invested with spiritual or moral authority. Believers and worshippers participate in and are often enjoined to perform devotional or contemplative practices such as prayer, meditation, or particular rituals. Worship, moral conduct, right belief, and participation in religious institutions are among the constituent elements of the religious life.

The major religions of the world (Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism, Christianity, Taoism, and Judaism) differ in many respects, including how each religion is organized and the belief system each upholds. Other differences include the nature of belief in a higher power, the history of how the world and the religion began, and the use of sacred texts and objects. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion)

Traditional Religion

In Nigeria, there are three main religions recognised by the people; Christianity, Islam and the Indigenous religion. These religions have differences that have brought about unrest as the tolerance level has got to a point of polarity. The various unrests have led to national insecurity of the country.

African religions, religious beliefs and practices of the peoples of Africa. It should be noted that any attempt to generalize about the nature of “African religions” risks wrongly implying that there is homogeneity among all African cultures. In fact, Africa is a vast continent encompassing both geographic variation and tremendous cultural diversity. Each of the more than 50 modern countries that occupy the continent has its own particular history, and each in turn comprises numerous ethnic groups with different languages and unique customs and beliefs. African religions are as diverse as the continent is varied. Nevertheless, long cultural contact, in degrees ranging from trade to conquest, has forged some fundamental commonalities among religions within sub regions, allowing for some generalizations to be made about the distinguishing features of religions indigenous to Africa. (With the exception of the influence of Christianity on New Religious Movements in Africa, religions that were introduced to Africa from elsewhere, such as Islam and Christianity, are not covered in this article.)

Religion today has taken a much-institutionalized form. Its origin has always been debated and discussed today by various scholars. In sociological terms, ‘Religion is a system of sacred belief and practices both in the tangible and intangible form’. Religion can serve the dual role of ideology as well as institution. Today, religion has assumed a more narrow-minded approach. However, understanding religion in the broad sense highlights the following important points about it in society:

Cultural Identity

Religion plays a crucial role for a person in giving a cultural identity. Each religion has festivals, traditions, mythologies which form a part of the tangible and intangible heritage of the country. Thus, religion contributes in order to protect this heritage and also adds to the diversity in the country.

Values and Ethics

Religion helps in creating an ethical framework and also a regulator for values in day to day life. This particular approach helps in character building of a person. In other words, Religion acts as an agency of socialization. Thus, religion helps in building values like love, empathy, respect, and harmony.

Spiritual Connect

People are always on the quest of fulfilling the economic and material pursuits in today’s world. It is the religion which plays a crucial role in establishing our connection to the divine and developing the belief that there is a supreme energy that acts as a regulator in our day to day lives. Thus, the components of prayer, chants, hymns, etc. create the spiritual bond.

The Idea of Welfare

Each and every religion promotes its philosophy and the crux of it has always been the welfare and wellness of the people. For example, in the Sanatana Dharma, there are ideas like Vasudaiva Kutumbakam (the whole world is a family), Sarve Sukhina Bhavantu (let everyone be happy) which nurture and cultivate love and compassion in the society.

(https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what-is-the-importance-of-religion-in-our-lives)

 

Benefits of Religion

Religion has been a feature of the world for as long as it came into existence. Different religious traditions have played a major role in the evolution of society. This is a look at some of the benefits that the world has received from religion.

In summary, the main benefits of religion include

1.      Teachings of goodwill and the golden rule (do unto others)

2.      Promoting ethics and good morals in political life

3.      Inner strength and courage to do the right thing

4.      The message of forgiveness

5.      Religious art/music

6.      Sense of community and belonging

7.      Selfless Service

“Each religion has helped mankind. Paganism increased in man the light of beauty, the largeness and height of his life, his aim at a many-sided perfection; Christianity gave him some vision of divine love and charity; Buddhism has shown him a noble way to be wiser, gentler, purer, Judaism and Islam how to be religiously faithful in action and zealously devoted to God; Hinduism has opened to him the largest and profoundest spiritual possibilities. “

 Sri Aurobindo (Essays in Philosophy and Yoga, p.211)

Religion has often been a vehicle for intolerance and fundamentalism; religion has been used as an excuse for persecution and war. But, religion in its purest form has provided many benefits for humanity.

Teachings of goodwill and the golden rule

“We must be bright and cheerful. Long faces do not make religion. Religion should be the most joyful thing in the world, because it is the best. Within all religions, there are teachings of goodwill to our fellow men. The golden rule of religious teaching is to treat others as we would like to be treated ourselves. At the World Parliament of Religions (1993), a declaration towards a Global Ethic was made. This principle was signed by 143 leaders from the major faiths. The simple declaration read:

“We must treat others as we wish others to treat us”

Two passages from Gospels quote Jesus Christ in espousing the Golden Rule.

“Do to others what you want them to do to you. This is the meaning of the law of Moses and the teaching of the prophets.” Matthew 7:12

This principle is often ignored by votaries of religion, but without ethical teachings propagated by religions, there would have been even more conflict and division in the world. Religious ethics, such as the Golden Rule do provide a basis for encouraging better human behaviours.

TYPES OF RELIGION

1.       African Religion;

2.       Anatolian Religion; 

3.      Ancient Iranian Religion;

4.       Arabian Religion; Baltic Religion;

5.       Buddhism; Calvinism;

6.       Celtic Religion;

7.       Christianity; 

8.      Confucianism;

9.       Daoism; Eastern Orthodoxy; 

10.  Eastern Rite Church; 

11.  Egyptian Religion;

12.   Finno-Ugric Religion;

13.   Germanic Religion And Mythology; 

14.  Greek Religion;

15.   Hellenistic Religion; 

16.  Hinduism;

17.   Islam;

18.   Jainism; 

19.  Judaism; 

20.  Mesopotamian Religion;

21.   Middle Eastern Religion; 

22.  Mormon; 

23.  Mystery Religion;

24.   Native American Religions;

25.   Neo-Paganism; 

26.  New Religious Movement; 

27.  Old Catholic Church; 

28.  Orphic Religion;

29.   Prehistoric Religion; 

30.  Protestantism; 

31.  Protestant Heritage, The; Roman Catholicism;

32.   Roman Religion;

33.   Shintō; 

34.  Sikhism; 

35.  Slavic Religion;

36.   Syrian And Palestinian Religion;

37.   Vedic Religion; Wicca; 

38.  Zoroastrianism. (https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion)

 

Civil Rights

It is what guarantees equal social opportunities and equal protection under the law, regardless of race, religion, or other personal characteristics, examples of civil rights include

Ø  the right to vote,

Ø  the right to a fair trial,

Ø  the right to government services,

Ø  the right to a public education,

Ø  and the right to use public facilities.

 Civil rights are an essential component of democracy; when individuals are being denied opportunities to participate in political society, they are being denied their civil rights. In contrast to civil liberties, which are freedoms that are secured by placing restraints on government, civil rights are secured by positive government action, often in the form of legislation. Civil rights laws attempt to guarantee full and equal citizenship for people who have traditionally been discriminated against on the basis of some group characteristic. When the enforcement of civil rights is found by many to be inadequate, a civil rights movement may emerge in order to call for equal application of the laws without discrimination.

 

Unlike other rights concepts, such as human rights or natural rights, in which people acquire rights inherently, perhaps from God or nature, civil rights must be given and guaranteed by the power of the state. Therefore, they vary greatly over time, culture, and form of government and tend to follow societal trends that condone or abhor particular types of discrimination. For example, the civil rights of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) community have only recently come to the forefront of political debate in some Western democracies.

 

What is human right abuse?

BBC English dictionary defined abuse as “the act of treating someone cruelly and violently”. Longman dictionary of contemporary English agreed with the above definition of abuse but it also defined it as “the act of using something in a way that it should not be used.” Therefore human right abuse can be defined as any act that fails to acknowledge the rights of man by treating man in a cruel and violent way or by treating human less human. It also means denying human his fundamental human rights. Human right abuse is also a violation of human right because human rights are enshrined in virtually all written constitution of most countries and it is also universally declared by United Nations. Therefore any act of human right abuse is a breach of agreement. The question then is why are there still cases of human right abuse despite the agreement to protect human right?

(2) The history of human right abuse in Nigeria:

The history of human right abuse in Nigeria is as old as Nigeria, herself. This is because the creation of the nation, Nigeria, was an abuse of the fundamental human right of the various entities that make up the Nigerian state. The approval of the various groups was not sought before they were emerged as a nation (Ezeanya: 2010) consequently the move toward national integration (Izukanne: 2007) has been a problem. It was this sense of disunity and mistrust that led to the Nigerian civil war which resulted to various forms of human rights abuses including the loss of life, properties, rape among others. Some Nigerian scholars are of the view that the western countries use the tool of neo-colonialism to influence and decide the Nigerian leadership. If they are correct then it means, as they claimed, that the westerners are only interested in leaders that will protect their interest and not the interest of the Nigerian populace. It was for the same reason that the interests of the people were not sought before bringing them together as a nation. The point is that the foundation of Nigerian was wrongly laid which make it difficult for the group to integrate and form a stable society. The difficulties encountered in such wrong foundation include the abuse of human rights which has persisted till date.

Reasons for human rights abuses in Nigeria

Under the basis of justice, fairness, peace, and equality it is expected that any agreement should be respected and honored. The case should not be different when it comes to the respect of human rights. Therefore it is unlawful for human rights to be abused or denied for any reason except when it is lawful to do so under the same law as in a case of being found guilty of a crime. Then there have to be causes for such abuses. The following are why there are cases of human rights abuses in Nigeria:

i) Selfishness:

 Most forms of human right abuses are caused by selfishness in that individual, group, agencies or Nigerian government office holders and staffs are so selfish that they do not respect the rights of others consequently they abuse human rights just to satisfy there own desires.

ii) Corruption:

 The high level of corruption in Nigeria and especially in the Nigerian government makes it absolutely impossible to respect and protect human rights. It is obvious that a corrupt system of leadership can not grantee the protection of human right because corruption, itself, is an abuse of the rights of the people. Is it not an abuse of human right for leaders to embezzle public fund that should be used to develop the nation and improve the lives of the people?

 iii) The spirit of holding tight to power:

It is a known fact that most African leaders have the spirit of sitting –tight in office consequently they can do anything to ensure that they remain in power. The case is even rampant in Nigeria where an incumbent leader will either want to extend his tenor or appoint his successor. The means of fulfilling such ill desire, in a democratic setting, is rigging of elections which is an abuse of the citizens right because it denies the citizens the right to vote and be a part of the leadership selection process.

iv) Lack of rule of law:

Despite the fact that the federal republic of Nigeria has a constitution yet there are case numerous cases of lack of rule of law and corruption in the court of law. It is clear that under such conditions the judiciary is owned by the Nigerian elites. Then how can the poor Nigerian citizens seek justice in any court of law when their rights are abused by the elites? The answer is that the law will fail to protect the poor masses.

v) Ignorance:

Most Nigerian citizens do not even know their rights therefore they do not know when their rights are being abused and how to fight for their rights to avoid further abuse even if it means seeking the help of international human right agencies.

vi) Lack of potent law enforcement agencies:

The federal republic of Nigeria has no effective and admirable agencies when it comes to the protection of human rights in Nigeria. It is the duty of the government through the police to provide security and to protect the life and property of the Nigerian citizens but that has not been the case. In fact the Nigerian police are more interested in extorting money on the high way and detaining any driver that refuse to comply. This act is an abuse of the citizens’ right. Some drivers are even shot and killed because the refused to be extorted. The Nigerian police do not provide adequate security for the poor masses but they usually provide security and escort for the rich Nigerians that are willing to pay, and government high office holders. Consequently the police do not respond immediately to stop a crime when called upon to do so and they expect the citizens to pay them before any investigation will be carried out. Then how can a poor citizen afford the money to address an injustice.

vii) Materialism:

Despite the fact that Nigeria is among the religious nations of the world yet most Nigerian lack spirituality which is the basic part of religion. Nigerians are more of materialistic when it comes to their dealing with their fellow man. Therefore the desire and act of placing material values over human rights usually leads to robbery, kidnapping, election rigging among others which constitute human right abuses.

viii) Lack of good leadership practice:

A leader should lead by example but the Nigerian leaders are responsible for must of the human right violation in Nigeria. These they do starting from their means of obtaining political power to their period in power. We can then ask, how can a leader that forced himself on the people protect the rights of the people?

ix) Religious fanaticism:

The Nigerian constitution provides liberty of religion to all Nigerian citizen yet some religious fanatics in Nigeria deny others the right to express their religious right. Some even make hate speeches against the beliefs of others.

A view of Human right in Nigeria and problems

There are some notable domestic institutions that were created to protect human rights in Nigeria. These institutions include:

 National Human Rights Institution,

 Truth and Reconciliation Commission,

 Human Right Education.

 

Fundamental Human Rights in Nigeria

In the 1999 Nigeria constitution, some of the rights generally recognized as fundamental are:

Right to life; Right to marry;

Right to procreate;

Right to raise children free from unnecessary governmental interference;

Right to freedom of association; of expression;

Right to equality of treatment before the law (fair legal procedures);

Right to freedom of thought;

Right to religious belief;

Right to choose when and where to acquire formal education;

Right to pursue happiness;

Right to vote;

Right to Freedom of contract;

Right to privacy;

Right to interstate travel

Why and how are Human Rights Violated?

i. Unlawful violation of civil, political, and moral rights (first generation rights):

a. Unlawful violation of the right to life:

This human right problem is found in extrajudicial killing by government security operatives for instance the death of about 50 persons, and burning down of nearly 100 homes among other destructions caused by the Nigerian police in Ogaminana, outskirt of Okene in Kogi state on 25th Feb. 2008. Other cases are unlawful killing for ritual, and politically motivated murder. The Nigerian government has continually failed to address this kind of human right abuses and punish the offenders.

b. Unlawful violation of the right to freedom of movement:

These kind of human right abuses include kidnapping, and disappearance. The incident of kidnapping has been on the increase in Nigeria and it seems the government can not protect the citizens for instance despite that kidnapping has been going on in various parts of the country but between September 2010 and the time of writing this work, the situation got worst in Aba Abia- state. This is because of cases of all forms of kidnapping including kidnapping of children, armed robbery (www.thisdayonline.info/nview.php?id=18425). This development led to closure of banks and many settlers in Aba ran away from their home. The unlawful detention of crime suspects without charging them to court is also an abuse found in this category.

c. Unlawful violation of the right to the dignity of the human person:

This kind of human right abuse is as a result of torture, inhuman treatment, and extortion among others. Most at times the Nigerian police use torture and other cruel treatment while questioning a crime suspect. The extortions by the Nigerian police are also an abuse of human rights.

d. Election rigging:

All Nigerians interviewed in the course of writing this work confirmed that denying them the right (disenfranchise) Despite that the fact that Nigeria is still suffering from indigenes-settlers syndrome which denies Nigerians the right to participate in a local/ state government expect his own place of origin. It is even more of an abuse to deny the Nigerian populace the right to participate in the general elections, if truly we are a nation.

e. Violation of the right to freedom of religion:

Although the Nigerian constitution granted the right of religion yet, the same constitution in section 260 (1) and 275(1) gave some states the right to establish their religious courts and law. One may ask if those that wrote the constitution sincerely want the integration of various Nigerian groups with their different religions and culture. There are cases of religious conflict which led to loss of life and properties and restriction of religious activities by government security agencies for security reasons. Unfortunately some states in Nigeria teach their own religious instruction in schools and they sponsor their various religious pilgrimages.

f. Unlawful violation of freedom of assembly:

The Nigerian government is known to oppose anti-government protest and demonstration. For instance on 3rd Jan. 2009, police in Okeagbe, Ondo state allegedly killed and wounded some youths who demonstrated against local police extortion.

ii. Unlawful violation of the economic, social, and cultural rights ( second generation rights)

The rights violated under this kind of human right abuses include:

a. The right to education.

The Nigerian educational system is not fair to all citizens. Despite the fact that it is a shame that corruption, bribery, and nepotism are a trademark of high institutions in Nigeria, it is a shame because education is the tool that should be used to instruct and develop the future generation. The writer, based on his correspondences with two former Nigerian ministers of education, Dr. O. Ezekwesili, Dr. Nwachukwu A. and other stakeholders when right to education was infringed, is aware that those in the education sector are putting in efforts to address the ill vices in the Nigerian educational system. Yet it is too early to say far they have succeeded. Other problems in the education system include the act of students paying for admission and qualification. The result is that only those that can afford to pay will be admitted into some universities. Secondly, some state universities do not give equal admission opportunities to all Nigerians. Thirdly, the university council considered some states in Nigeria as education less privileged therefore students from such states are admitted with a lower score than compared to students from other states. The question is how a student with a lower score can be worthy to study whereas a student with a higher score can not study. Lastly Nigerian citizens are supposed to have free education but even in some states and federal school where it has been implemented students still pay fees, which although not called tuitions fee yet are high and makes it difficult for the poor masses to train their children in school.

b. Corruption in public services:

The interview carried out in the course of this work confirmed that it is an abuse of the citizens’ rights to have corrupt leaders in the public services. This is because it leads to poor standard of living as the people do not receive their entitlement.

iii. The third generation rights violated include:

a. Abuse of the right to clean and healthy environment

The Nigerian prison and police cells are over crowded and dirty and people are kept in such an unhealthy condition. One may be deceived to think that it is only criminals that are kept in such unhealthy environment but the fact is that most states are dirty because of lack of good environmental protection agencies. The conflict in the Niger delta region is partly as a result of an abuse of their environmental right. It is because of the abuse of environmental right in Nigeria that made the writer wonders if it is possible for man to exist without his environment.

b. Abuse of the right to self-determination:

This is among the right the Niger delta people claim to struggle for along with environmental right. The struggle led to armed conflict resulting to loss of lives and properties among others.

Other human right problems in Nigeria include:

i. child abuse,

ii. child labour,

iii. human trafficking, and

iv. discrimination against women.

v.sexual abuse

Consequences of human right abuse in Nigeria:

Human right abuse in Nigeria has obvious consequences which include:

i. Hindrance to national development:

This is because the development of any nation involves the cooperation of all her citizens by working collectively towards a common developmental goal. That is not the case in Nigeria where there are cases of strikes for instances the ASUU strike which was due to lack of government interest in supporting the educational sector despite that education is the strength of the economic and national development of any nation. The ethno-religious conflicts are also hindrance to national integration and national development.

ii. Poverty:

This is because of the abuse of public funds. The poverty rate is high in Nigeria because the people do not receive adequate attention from their leaders. Most Nigerians are underpaid, underemployed, or unemployed.

iii. Insecurity:

The high insecurity rate in Nigeria is because the law enforcement agencies are corrupt. They do not have much interest in protecting lives and properties of the poor masses.

iv. Poor health care facilities and diseases:

This is as a result of government nonchalant attitude to the well being of her citizens. Therefore the government does not put efforts to develop the medical sector of the nation. Nigerian leaders and elites usually travel abroad for medical treatment. They fail to realize that those nations were developed by leaders like them. Secondly, the poor and unhealthy environment affects the health of the people.

v. Conflict:

This can be seen from the conflict in the Niger delta region where the abuse of environmental right resulted to conflict and loss of lives and properties. Ethno- religious conflict is as a result of some Nigerian that failed to respect the religious and nationality rights of their fellow citizens.

vi. Unpatriotic:

Most Nigerians are not proud of calling Nigeria their father land. Many of them seek ways of leaving their country in search of a greener pasture. This is because Nigerian leaders do not treat Nigerian citizens well in their own father land. Some Nigerian scholars provide their services to other countries because their government failed to recognize them and place them in their rightful places because of nepotism, corruption among others. No wonder the ad “rebranding Nigeria” by the Nigerian minister of information but the writer is of the opinion that it is better the ad read “repentance and purification of Nigeria.” This is because repentance and purification in Nigeria is what we need before the rebranding process will be useful else the decay will still foil the golden rebranding package.

vii. Lawlessness:

Human right abuse is unlawful. Therefore where ever human right abuses exists and is not checked by law means that the law failed to function. That is the situation in Nigeria where we operate without truly applying the rule of law.

 

viii. Hindrance to national integration:

The Nigerian government has a larger role to play for effective national integration toward nation building. The government cannot play their role effectively by abusing

rights of her citizens, and supporting any religious or ethnic group. The Nigerian government, which claims to be secular but not in practice by its status, tends to push Nigeria towards disintegration, disunity, and mistrust This is even worst as some minority groups in Nigeria feel that they are denied the right to vote and be voted for and the central government is controlled by majority ethnic groups.

xi. Undiscovered potentials and talents:

Nigeria does not discover all her potentials and talents. This is because of cases like child abuse and discrimination against women among cases that deny women and children, even able men, the opportunity of getting education and participating in most aspect of the society. Therefore they fail to give their full potentials and talents to the nation.

1. Human right abuse Nigeria and the way out:

It is clear that human right abuse is a menace to any society because of the problems associated with it. Many Nigerian, and indeed, the international community may wonder how Nigeria can overcome and outgrow the shameful cases of human right abuses. Therefore is work will be incomplete without pointing the way out. The only solution to end the menace of human right abuses is to stop the violation of human rights. The writer has two recommendations, for Nigerian government, and the other for the Nigerian citizens.

Governments’ role in the solution of human right abuse

a. A revisit to the Nigerian constitution:

The government has to amend some clues in the Nigerian constitution like section 215 (5), 260 (1), 275 (1) among others (Ezeanya: 2010). For instance it is unjust for any government that claims to be secular to put clues in her constitution that guarantees state to adopt any religious law. This is not good in a setting where people of different religion and culture are expected to integrate as a nation. This is because the government should consider Nigerians as Nigerians and not as people of different culture and religion, if they really want national integration. Secondly, if our leaders are sincere then there is no reason way a president should not be questioned in any court of law for the orders he gave to law enforcement agencies.

b. The rule of law:

Government should follow the rule of law. It has to ensure that corruption in the judiciary is stopped and checked by another agency. This will make it easier for the citizens to trust the judiciary and seek redress in court whenever their rights are abused.

c. Free access and legal aid to victim of human right abuses:

Government should provide free legal services for those seeking justice on human right abuse cases especially those that are poor or less privileged in the society like children and women. This will make it easier for all Nigerians to seek justice no matter their status in society. It can help to solve problems like child abuse, child labour, forced marriages among others.

 

 

 

Human right education:

Government should provide human right education to the citizens through media, lectures, and simulation exercises among others. It will help to educate the citizens on their rights and on how to seek redress when their rights are abused.

d. Re-orientation of the law enforcement agencies:

The Nigerian law enforcement agencies especially the Nigerian police needs re-orientation because they need to understand what their duties are in that they have to learn that respecting the rights of the citizens are of part of their duty. Secondly they should learn not to only work for their pay but to be proud to serve their father land as police men and women thereby determine to carry out their duties better which include fighting crime and protecting life and properties of Nigerian. The military should be taught to use less force when called upon to help restore law and order; in fact the government should allow the military to primarily defend the nation against external forces therefore they should create another security agency to assist the police or they beef up the police so that they can combat most internal crimes.

e. Practical punishment of human right offenders:

The government should just speak or set up panels on human right abuses but ensure that human right offenders are brought to book with fear and favour. Retributive justice should be applied where necessary because it will act as an example to other human right offenders.

f. Overhauling of the judiciary and human right institutions:

It is clear that the Nigerian judicial arm is long dead and forgotten. No wonder the late president, Musa Yar A dua, promised to bring back the rule of law. Therefore it is important to resurrect and overhaul the judiciary, if the problems of human right abuses will be tackled effectively. Secondly the human right institutions should be overhauled and given total financial support and independence to carry out their work with fear and favour.

ii. The citizens’ role in the solution of human right abuse:

The second part of the recommendation goes to the citizens because in as much as the citizens have the right to their fundamental human rights, they have a part to play in the society to ensure that they do not only help the government to protect their rights but they also live responsibly thereby protecting their own rights and the rights of other humans at all levels of human relationships ranging from the family to the global arena. This is because some form of human right abuses like child abuse, child labour, child trafficking, forced marriages, discrimination against women, robbery among others starts from the family level which means there are caused by the state, though it is the duty of the state to prevent such abuses. The responsibilities of the Nigerian citizens include:

a. Patriotism:

This virtue is required of all citizens towards realizing our dream of national development and an end to all forms of human right abuses. With patriotism we can respect and be more loyal to our country and do our best to put our skills towards ending all forms of human right abuses. Only then can Nigeria become safe and a better place for us, and our visitors thereby earning us national respect in the global society.

b. Assisting the law enforcement agencies:

Nigerians have to respect and help the law enforcement agencies in their investigations and in providing evidence to assist in human right abuse charges.

c. Respect for the law:

Nigerian should learn to respect the laws of the state because in that laws are enshrined the rights of all Nigerian. An honest respect of the law will help prevent abuses like religious intolerance, child abuse, child trafficking among others.

d. Formation of civil societies on human right issues:

Banal civil societies are not enough to fight human abuses in Nigeria. Therefore there is the need to form effective civil societies to help fight human right abuse cases. In this way it will be difficult for the government to ignore human right abuses and human right abuse cases.

e. Co-operation with international organizations on human right issues:

Nigerians and civil societies should work closely with international human right organizations. This will make various cases of human right abuses known to the global society and effort will be made by various stakeholders to tackle the menace because the fight against human right is a global fight.