SSE
106: Introduction to Nigerian Cultural Environment
Course
Content/Course Outline
Man
as the focus of Social Studies, Socialization, Agencies and Institutions;
marriage, religion, legal and civic obligations, Rights and responsibilities of
Citizen
Man
As the Focus of Social Studies
Social Studies are the
study of human beings and their interactions with one other and their
environment. Man (human beings) is the central focus of Social Studies this is
because understanding human behavior, relationships, and institutions is highly
crucial for building a better society. Social Studies goes about facilitating
an understanding of the complexity of man, his problems, challenges and
solutions, by using anal–out learning technique and strategy known as
“Integration”. It is necessary for us to know this for proper understanding of
social studies. Social Studies, as a
discipline, it is no longer an appendage of the Social Sciences. The discipline
which has gone a long way in emerging as a distinctive area of learning, the
time or those days when it was treated as “a bit of history”, “a bit of
geography” has gone. It is no longer a mixture or” hotchpotch”, a confused
addition of bits and pieces of the Social Sciences and Humanities. This was
sometimes referred to as “inter-disciplinary” form of teaching but not now.
The new emphasis is to
conceive and implement Social Studies as an integrative discipline, and to
impart themes from a unified angle. It may interest us to note that the
reference to “problem” is to a specific challenge that requires solution
through careful study and investigation. This is a matter that investigation
inquiry, and discussion that would test to a solution. The type of research
carried out for the social sciences are based on observation and inquiry.
Social studies are
corrective study because it is a subject which is concerned with the problems
of man’s living in the society with a view of finding solutions to those
problems. It is also a subject which concentrates on the three (3) areas of
knowledge: cognitive domain, affective domain and psychomotor domain by Dr.
Benjamin Bloom and his committee in 1956. Cognitive: according to
Marriam-Webster relating to being, or involving consciousness intellectual
activity (such as thinking, reasoning or remembering) it can also mean be based
on or capable of being reduced to empirical factual knowledge.
It is concerned with
knowing/knowledge, ability to comprehend, comprehension, investigation, acquire
knowledge etc. Cognitive domain is the realm of mental skills and intellectual
abilities. It deals with how individual acquire process, and acquire knowledge
starting from basic recall to complex problem solving and creative thinking.
This domain associated with Bloom Taxonomy, that categorizes cognitive skills
into hierarchy from simpler to more complex levels. The cognitive domain
focuses on intellectual skills which includes knowledge acquisition, critical
thinking like was said earlier and others mentioned above. Coming to Bloom’s
Taxonomy its framework outlines six levels of cognitive skills namely
Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating and Creating.
Affective domain deals with emotion, values, attitudes and appreciation. While
Psychomotor domain has to do with manual or physical skills such as
coordination, dexterity and manipulation.
Social Studies centers on the development of
man, how man influences his environment and how the environment influences him
in return. It also focused on man and his interactions with his environment as
well. It also keeps on changing because of the factors of time and human
development. It fights against evil vices in the society. The subject considers
peculiar problems of a country and finds solutions to those problems. As such
the objective of Nigerian social studies must reflect the spirit of Nigerian
philosophy of education. It must help to develop the capacity to learn and to
acquire certain basic skills of listening, speaking, reading, writing and
calculation. Social studies education focuses on the use of critical and
reflective thinking to solve the problems of man’s survival in the environment.
Social studies are the
study of people in relation to each other and to their world. It is an issue
focused and inquiry-based interdisciplinary subject that draws upon history,
geography, ecology, economics, law, philosophy, political science and other
social science disciplines. Social
studies foster students’ understanding of and involvement in practical and ethical
issues that face their communities and humankind. Social studies are integral to the process of
enabling students to develop an understanding of who they are, what they want
to become and the society in which they want to live. (https://education.alberta.ca/media/159594/program-of-studies-k-3.pdf)
Nigeria is a country located on the western coast of Africa (West
Africa). Nigeria has a diverse geography, with climates
ranging from arid to humid equatorial. However, Nigeria's most
diverse feature is its people. More than hundreds to five hundred languages (100-500)
are spoken in the country, including Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Hausa, Edo, Ibibio,
Tiv, and English. Nigeria
has three major groups namely: Igbo, Hausa-Fulani, and Yoruba. The culture in
Nigeria is multi ethnic. The six largest ethnic
groups are the Hausa, Fulani in the
north, the Igbo in the southeast, and the Yoruba predominate
in the southwest, the Tiv people of North Central Nigeria and the Efik – Ibibio
of South-South Nigeria.
The concept of socialization
Socialization otherwise
known as ‘ internalization of culture’ is a lifelong process by which human
beings transmit and learn particular thought, feeling and behaviour processes
and patterns required for social perpetuation of, social adaptation to, and
social transformation of, culturally determined conditioned and expectations,
such as learning ones language, behaving according to the norms and values of
the culture, understanding social roles one is expected to perform as one
relate to others, and developing complex skills and techniques with which to
adapt to as well as transform ones social and physical environment. Socialization is the process by which
individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, and behaviors of society.
Socialization is a learning
process that begins shortly after birth. But from my own perception
socialization begin at conception. A pregnant woman socializes with the child
in the womb in as much as that woman is happy the child in the womb feels happy
too. When the mother is sad the child equally is saddening. Baby in the womb
run around expresses its movement in several occasions. The unbiblical cord
that connects the baby and the mother is part of socialization between mother
and child. When the mother is starved the child in the womb are also starved.
This is why it is nice to treat every pregnant woman well not only for the sake
of the mother alone but also for the child in the womb.
Happy mothers produce happy
children the same thing applicable to sad mothers producing sad children that
can endanger the society. Treatment given to any woman during the time of
conception till birth/delivery, determines the type of child to be born;
weather aggressive, moody, happy, wicked or otherwise. Therefore, I advise that
every woman should be extra cared for during the time of conception till
delivery so as to have sound, stable, happy, easy-going children that would
move the world forward for a better tomorrow. Early childhood is the period of
the most intense and the most crucial socialization. It is then that we
acquire language and learn the fundamentals of our culture. It is also
when much of our personality traits takes shape.
However, we continue to be socialized
throughout our lives. As we age, we enter new statuses
and need to learn the appropriate roles
for them. We also have experiences that teaches us lessons and
potentially lead us to alter our expectations, beliefs, and personality.
For instance, the experience of being raped is likely to cause a woman to be
distrustful of others especially men. It can even make some women not to marry
and even if they marry it will take time for them to relax in terms of having
sexual intercourse. It takes a patience and a caring man to live in harmony
with a woman that is a victim of rape. She needs love and a caring man to make
her forget the past.
Types of socialization
Children are socialized according to different
cultures we have two broad types of teaching methods--formal and
informal. Formal education is
what primarily happens in a classroom. It is usually structured,
controlled, and directed primarily by adult teachers who are
professionals. In contrast, informal
education can occur anywhere. It involves imitation of what
others do and say as well as experimentation and repetitive practice of basic
skills. This is what happens when children role-play adult interactions
in their games.
Agencies are an organizations or groups that shape human behavior
and interaction such as family, education, media, peer group, religion,
government law, culture and social norm, technology etc.
Institutions established patterns of behavior and relationships
that shape human interactions.
Legal and civic obligations are agencies that promote laws, rights,
and responsibilities that govern human behavior in order not to misbehave. They
see that people obey the law willingly or unwillingly and failure to obey the
law is liable to punishment. take for instance people go to jail for failure to
abide by the law, other are hanged, some are made to pay fine etc.
Women and girls are the most
crucial in socializing children. Initially, mothers and their female
relatives are primarily responsible for socialization. Later, when
children enter the lower school grades, they are usually under the control of
their teachers. They even feel that their teacher knows everything even more
than their parents that may likely be more qualified and having qualification
than the teacher. Every child sees their teacher as master of all things.
Sometimes children may not take the correction of their parents seriously like
that of their own teacher. It is easier to correct the teacher who then correct
the children in terms of wrong English or Mathematics thought to the children
by their teachers. Even seemingly
insignificant actions of parents can have major impacts on the socialization of
their children.
We have primary, secondary
and adult socialization
Primary socialization: the primary aspect of socialization is the
family this is where the children learn how to socialize with the family and
are being thought the values and norms of the society. A well brought up child
can never deviate from those norms that were being transferred to as a child.
We can also see the primary socialization as those ones got from the nursery
and primary school, at this stage the child is very tender and sees her teacher
as a role model. The child sees the teacher as the most educated even when the
parents are more educated than the teacher still the child believes in the
teacher and values the teacher’s education more than the parents.
Secondary Socialization: when we talk about the secondary
socialization our mind should go to school a bit higher than the nursery and
primary school. At this stage we can say that the child has passed the stage of
infantry. It is an adolescent stage, a
stage we call crisis stage. This time the child wants to be independent. He or
she would like to confide in his/her friend. They also see themselves as an
adult. The child has known what is right
or wrong. The child also can challenge the teacher in terms of knowledge. It is
at this stage that the child meets peer groups that are very strong and can
influence them. This stage a well brought up child can be influenced by the
peers. Those that can be influenced are those that do not have strong
self-will. Most of the times are children from broken homes (divorced) or those
from a quarrelsome family where the father and the mother fight every day, and
some families that have some lapses. This stage is a critical stage for
children in taking decision or making choice. At this point in time, they more
love and care plus petting. This stage is very delicate and if care is not taken
you lose your child to the hands of evil young ones of the same age limit.
Close contact, close monitoring, closeness, telling the truth should be highly
needed. Sex education is also necessary in order not to be wrongly educated by
the peers. Should be told the implication of pre-marital sex etc.
Adult socialization: this has to do with grownups socializing with
friends. Socialization has no end we continue to socialize with people until we
die. As an adult there are stages of adulthood: the early adulthood, the middle
adulthood, and the aging years. According to Atkinson, Atkinson and Hilgard
(1983: 98):
During the early adult years, people commit themselves to an occupation,
and many will marry or form other types of intimate relationships. Intimacy means
an ability to care about others and to share experiences with them. People who
cannot commit themselves to a loving relationship – because they fear being
hurt or are unable to share – risk being isolated. Studies indicate that an
intimate relationship with a supportive partner contributes significantly to a
person’s emotional and physical health. People who have someone to share their
ideas feeling, and problems with are happier and healthier than those who do
not have (Traupmann and Hatfield, 1981).
At this stage
as the men and women marry, they begin to procreate. As they have children most
women divert their attention more on the children than the husband and life go
on. It is dangerous to abandon your husband for the sake of your child. Every
woman needs to balance the two. A little attention to the child a little
attention to the husband or vice versa. Remember you started with your husband
before the child came. You need to be careful or else you lose your husband to
another person that can give him the attention he needs. Family life is not
easy but should be handled with caution. This is the stage of struggling to
train your children.
Draining your pocket for the sake of the
children. It is important to have a number of children you two can carter for.
Women should support their husband. Men are very fragile and if care is not
taken you lose him at this stage to the cold hand of death and you carry the
whole burden to yourself which is very difficult to handle. It is time to join
hands together to bring out the best in your family. The two of you must make
each other happy because the children are watching. Any quarrelling should be
inside the room and settle your differences amicably. As the children are
growing, they are watching the parents. Parents should set a role model for
their kids. The happiness of the parents is also the joy of the children. The
joy they receive in the family makes them think that marriage is a bed of
roses. This will make them fearless in terms of marriage because of their sweet
child upbringing and so on.
Middle adulthood: they further explained that for many people, the
middle years of adulthood (roughly ages 40-65) are the most productive period.
Men in their forties are usually at the peak of their careers. Women have less
responsibility at home now that the children are growing up and can devote more
time to career or civic activities. This is the age group that essentially runs
society, in terms of both power and responsibility. As people approach their
fifties, they change their view of life span. They begin to think in terms of
years left to live. For some people who have spent their years building a
successful company may leave it to return to school. For women that have
developed their family may develop a new career or become active in politics.
Some people at this stage may decide to live the city and retire to the
village. Based on stages in life we see the angle or direction where
socialization is being channeled to.
The aging years: this is the year after 65years whereby new
problems arises, as declining from physical strength and facing all sorts of
sickness that demoralizes them and leave them in a state of helplessness. This time is period of loneliness and less
feeling of worth and self-esteem. The aged are also faced with loss of spouse,
siblings, and relations which can make their life uncomfortable. The fairness
of their children also affects them. The type of socialization at this time is
people coming for an advice and blessing. They also socialize with their
grandchildren by telling those stories of the past and folk lore. Socialization
has no end it continues until we die. That is why we say that it is for a
lifelong process. Old age is time of reflection that deeply looked into how the
person faces the end of life. This stage one may be regretting or not depends
on the way you lived your life. Also, this stage if one is lucky, you and your
spouse will be left alone. The children are grown ups staying in different
places in the world. One is also free to travel about. Especially women going
for omugo from one place to the other. It is important for the woman to
travel with the husband so that he may not suffer from loneliness which is a
silence killer.
Anticipatory socialization: this refers to a process by which men learn
the culture of a group with the anticipation of joining that group or belonging
to the group. People learns the proper beliefs, values and norms of a status or
group to which he aspires this is learning how to ach with his new role.
Re-socialization: refers to the process of discarding the former
behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as part of transition in one’s life.
This type of socialization takes place mostly when a social role is radically
changed. It has to do with abandonment of one way of life for another which is
not only different from the former but incompatible with it. For instance, when
an armed robber is rehabilitated, his role changed radically from worst to
best.
Features of
socialization:
- Socialization
inculcates basic discipline, such that a person may learn how to control
his or her impulses. Thereby showing disciplined behaviour to gain
social approval.
- It helps to
control human behaviour: an individual from birth to death
undergoes training and his behaviour is controlled by numerous ways. To
maintain the social order, there are definite procedures or mechanism in
society. These procedures become part of people’s life and human being
gets adjusted to the society. As time goes on socialization, society
intends to control the behaviour of its members unconsciously.
- Rapid socialization: there is
rapid socialization if there is more humanity among the agencies of
socialization is more unanimous in their ideas and skills. When there is
conflict between the ideas, for instance the skills transmitted in home
and those transmitted by school or peer, socialization of the individual
tends to be slower and ineffective.
- Socialization
takes place formally and informally: formal socialization
takes place through direct instruction and education in schools and
colleges. Family is however, the primary and the most influential source
of education. Children learn their language, customs norms and values in
the family.
- Socialization
is a continuous process: socialization is a lifelong process. It
does not cease when a child becomes an adult, internalization of culture
continues from generation to generation. Society perpetuates itself
through the internalization of culture, its members transmit culture to
the next generation and society continues to exist.
Agents
of socialization (Family, Peer Group, School, Mass Media, Church, Mosque, etc.)
Socialization is a
process by which culture is transmitted to the younger generation and men learn
the rules and practices of social groups to which they belong. Through it that
a society maintains its social system. Personalities do not come ready –made.
The process that transforms a child into a reasonably respectable human being
is a long process. Hence every society builds an institutional framework within
which socialization of the child takes place.
Culture is transmitted
through the communication they have with one another and communication thus
comes to be the essence of the process of culture transmission. In a society
there exist a number of agencies to socialize the child. To facilitate
socialization different agencies, play important roles. These agencies however
interrelated.
1. Family: Is the bedrock of
every society. It family plays an outstanding role in the socialization
process. In all societies other agencies besides the family contribute to
socialization such as educational institutions, the peer group etc. but family
plays the most important role in the formation of personality. By the time
other agencies contribute to this process family has already left an imprint on
the personality of the child. The parents use both reward and punishment to
imbibe what is socially required from a child.
According to Robert, K.
Merton, “it is the family which is a major transmission belt for the diffusion
of cultural standards to the oncoming generation “The family serves as “the
natural and convenient channel of social continuity.
2. Peer Group: peer group members a group in which the members share
some common characteristics such as age or sex etc. it is made up of the
contemporaries of the child, his associates in school, in playground and in
street. The growing child learns some very important lessons from his peer
group. Since members of the peer group are at the same stage of socialization
they freely and spontaneously interact with each other.
Conflict arises when
standards of the peer group differ from the standards of the child family. He
may consequently attempt to withdraw from the family environment. The peer
group surpasses the parental influence as time goes on. This seems to be an
inevitable occurrence in rapidly changing societies. Peer group is a type of socialization through
friendship, and influence on attitudes and behaviors. Once a good son may turn
to a bandit due to peers’ influence; this is what is obtainable in our society
nowadays. But children that have self-will may escape this but they are very
few. A lot of boys and girls smoke and are addicted to drugs because of peer group’s
influence, trying to belong or suit to a particular group known to be a
nuisance to the society.
3. Religion: Religion plays a very important role in socialization.
Religion instills the fear of hell in the individual so that he should refrain
from bad and undesirable activities. Religion not only makes people religious
but socializes them into the secular order. Religion gives spiritual guidance, moral values, and community
support to their members and even nonmembers. Instilling the fear of God in you
makes you a changed person wanting to do good all the time.
4. Media is a type of socialization through mass communication, this
can influence on attitudes and behaviors of some people more especially
children. One can also be addicted to social media information such as
pornography, sexual attraction, pressing phone unintentionally, and constant
usage of earphone for listening to music without paying attention of where you
are or what can happen to you. For instance, some people may be pressing their phone
while crossing the main road without noticing that car is passing by. Some
using ear phone may not know when they are called for important information and
so on.
5. Educational institutions: parents and peer groups are not the only
agencies of the socialization in modern societies. Every civilized society
therefore has developed a set of formalized agencies of education (schools,
colleges and universities) which have a great bearing on the socialization
process. It is in the educational institutions that the culture is formally
transmitted and acquired in which the science and the art of one generation
passed on to the next.
The educational
institutions not only help the growing child in learning language and other
subjects but also instill the concept of time, discipline, team work,
cooperation and competition. Through the means of reward and punishment the
desired behaviour pattern is reinforced whereas undesirable behaviour pattern
meets with disapproval, ridicule and punishment.
6. Occupation: in the occupational world the individual finds himself
with new shared interests and goals. He makes adjustments with the position he
holds and also learns to make adjustment with other workers who may occupy
equal or higher or lower position.
While working, the individual
enters into relations of cooperation, involving specialization of tasks and at
the same time learns the nature of class divisions. Work, for him, is a source
of income but at the same time it gives identity and status within society as a
whole.
Wilbert Moore has divided
occupational socialization into four phases:
(a)
career choice,
(b)
anticipatory socialization,
(c)
conditioning and commitment,
(d)
continuous commitment
(a)
Career Choice:
the first phase is career choice, which involves selection of academic or vocational
training appropriate for the desired job.
(b)
Anticipatory Socialization: the
next phase is which may last only a few months or extent for years. Some
children inherit their occupations. These young people experience anticipatory
socialization throughout childhood and adolescence as they observe their
parents at work. Certain individuals decide on occupational goals at relatively
early ages. The entire adolescent period for them may focus on training for
them may focus on training for that future.
(c)
Conditioning and Commitment: this
takes places while one actually performs the work-related role. Conditioning
consists of reluctantly adjusting to the more unpleasant aspects of one’s job.
Most people find that the novelty of new daily schedule quickly wears off and
realize that the parts of the work experience are rather tedious. Moore uses
the term commitment to refer to the enthusiastic acceptance of pleasurable
duties that come as the recruit identifies the positive task of an occupation.
(d)
Continuous Commitment:
we can see this one as one that makes one indispensable. According to Moore, if
a job proves to be satisfactory, the will enter the fourth stage of
socialization. At this stage the job becomes an indispensable art of the
person’s self-identity. Violation of proper conduct becomes unthinkable. The
person may choose to join professional association, unions or other groups
which represents his or her occupation in the larger society.
6. Political Parties: political
parties attempt to seize political power and maintain it. They try to win the
support of the members of the society on the basis of a socio-economic policy
and programme. In the process they disseminate political values and norms and
socialize the citizen. The political parties socialize the citizen for
stability and change of political system.
7. Mass Media: The
mass media is for communication particularly television which play an important
role in the process of socialization. The mass media of communication transmit
information and messages which influence the personality of an individual to a
great extent. In addition to this it has an important effect in encouraging
individual to support the existing norms and values or oppose or change them.
They are the instrument of social power. They influence us with their messages.
The words are always written by someone and these people too authors and
editors and advertisers join the teachers the peers and the parents in the
socialization process.
Processes of Socialization
Natural socialization
occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world
around them. The children internalize whatever was thought to them at this
stage. The process operates
at two levels, one with the infant which is called the internalization of
objects around and the other from the outside. Socialization may be seen as the
internalization of social norms. Natural socialization is easily seen
when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Social rules become internalized
by the individual, in the sense that they are self-imposed by means of external
regulation which is part of individual personality.
Planned socialization
occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others -- from
infancy. This process of socialization is looked as essential element of social
interaction. This has to do with the individual becoming socialized with the
accordance of the social norms which is the expectation of others.
Socialization is filed up with social interactions. Planned socialization is
mostly a human phenomenon; and all through history, people have been making
plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization
can have good and bad features: It is wise to learn the best features of both
natural and planned socialization and weave them into our lives.
Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based
on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill
our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and
rewarding opportunities.
Negative
socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh
criticisms or anger to try to "teach us a lesson;" and often we come
to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us.
There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization; and the
more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be --
especially if we learn useful information that helps us cope well with the
challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make
a person unhappy, defeated or pessimistic about life. Through the process of socialization individuals
becomes a social person and can attain his or her personality.
Importance
of socialization
Ø Socialization shape’s individual
identity and personality to good or bad this is when a child is brought up in a
good home, he or she will continues doing good and if otherwise reverse is the
case.
Ø It also prepares individuals for
roles and responsibilities in society that is getting the younger ones ready to
face the challenges of the world.
Ø Socialization is very necessary
in our society in terms of teaching and learning that prepares people on how to
manage life most especially when life is unbearable.
Ø It Transmits culture, values, and
norms from one generation to another that is why w say that socialization is a
continuous process that has no end.
MARRIAGE
Marriage: is a socially recognized union between individuals,
typically involving a commitment to share a life together, builds a family, and
provide emotional and economic support. It is also for mainly companionship.
There are three types of marriage
in Nigeria today: religious marriage, civil marriage, and traditional marriage.
A Nigerian couple may decide to take part in one or all of these marriages.
Religious mar males are allowed only one wife, while Muslim men can take up to
four wives. Civil official weddings take place in a government registry office.
Men are allowed only one wife under a civil wedding, regardless of religion.
Traditional marriages usually are held at the wife's house and are performed
according to the customs of the ethnic group involved. Most ethnic groups
traditionally allow more than one wife.
Depending on whom you ask,
polygamy has both advantages and disadvantages in Nigerian society. Some
Nigerians see polygamy as a divisive force in the family, often pitting one
wife against another. Others see polygamy as a unifying factor, creating a
built-in support system that allows wives to work as a team.
While Western ways of courtship
and marriage are not unheard of, the power of traditional values and the strong
influence of the family mean that traditional ways are usually followed, even
in the cities and among the elite. According to old customs, women did not have
much choice of whom they married, though the numbers of arranged marriages are
declining. It is also not uncommon for women to marry in their teens, often to
a much older man. In instances where there are already one or more wives, it is
the first wife's responsibility to look after the newest wife and help her
integrate into the family.
Domestic
Unit: The majority of Nigerian families
are very large by Western standards. Many Nigerian men take more than one wife.
In some ethnic groups, the greater the number of children, the greater a man's
standing in the eyes of his peers. Family units of ten or more are not
uncommon.
In a polygamous family, each wife
is responsible for feeding and caring for her own children, though the wives
often help each other when needed. The wives also will take turns feeding their
husband so that the cost of his food is spread equally between or among the
wives. Husbands are the authority figures in the household, and many are not
used to their ideas or wishes being challenged.
In most Nigerian cultures, the
father has his crops to tend to, while his wives will have their own jobs,
whether to be tending the family garden, processing palm oil, or selling
vegetables in the local market. Children may attend school. When they return
home, the older boys will help their father with his work, while the girls and
younger boys will go to their mothers.
What
is marriage?
Marriage is a union
between a man and a woman such that the children born to the woman are
recognize as legitimate offspring of both parents (Royal Anthropological
Institute 1951). Marriage is not always between a man and a woman since it can
be between a man and many wives (polygyny) or between a woman and two or more
men (polyandry). Let’s take some examples from Western Europe or America,
recently they have recognized gay marriage which is same sex therefore marriage
is no longer between a man and a woman but to a man and a man and a woman and a
woman. So, in African tradition it is an abomination and we must not buy this
idea. They also provide love, care, and companionship. Family and Marriage
offers emotional comfort and stability. They help in building trust and as
well, intimacy, drawing the family to live together.
Marriage according to
Giddens and Dunnier (2000) it is “a socially acknowledged and approved sexual
union between two adults individual.”
This type of marriage has no legal backing or should be frowned at and
even criticized; in an African content and even morally, it is unacceptable but
may be acceptable to those who called themselves civilized nation. Furthermore,
the definition has no room for polygyny and polyandry indicating that it has no
room for polygamy which is an umbrella word for the two (polygyny and
polyandry). Having felt the purse of some scholars it can be seen that there is
no uniform umbrella that defined marriage to be exactly one acceptable
definition so it varies and depends on how society views it.
Let us delve into our
Christian, Islamic, Hindu and African traditional faith concerning their views
about marriage.
The Bible Defines Marriage as
a Covenant
The marriage ceremony, therefore, is meant
to be a public demonstration of a couple's commitment to a covenant
relationship. ... For Christians, marriage goes beyond the
earthly covenant also, as a divine picture of the relationship between Christ
and his Bride, the Church (www.learnreligions.com>....> The new Testament).
The
purpose of marriage in the bible is that: It is the union between Christ and
his people, as one flesh. Such companionship and intimacy is a profound gift to
be marveled at and enjoyed, bringing contentment and happiness. And in so
enjoying, we bring glory to him—the creator of perhaps the greatest gift ever.
In Etymology the word "marriage"
derives from Middle English marriage, which first appears in 1250–1300 CE.
This, in turn, is derived from Old French, marier (to marry),
and ultimately Latin, marītāre, meaning to provide with a
husband or wife and marītāri meaning to get married.
In Islam, marriage is
a legal contract between a man and a woman. Both the groom and the bride are to
consent to the marriage of their own free wills. ...
There is also Nikah Misyar, a non-temporary marriage with
the removal of some conditions such as living together, permitted by some Sunni
scholars. For further enquiry consult or read (Islamic marital jurisprudence · Islamic marriage
contract · Category: Marriage in Islam).
Moreover, Islam, marriage is
recognized as the basis of society. It is a contract but it is also a sacred
covenant. Marriage as an institution leads to the uplift of
man and is a means for the continuance of the human race. Most Muslims
believe marriage is a fundamental building block of
life. Marriage is a contract between a man and woman to live
together as husband and wife. ... For most Muslims the purpose of marriage is
to: keep faithful to each other for the rest of their lives, have children and
bring them up in the Muslim faith.
(www.bbc.co.uk>bitesize>guide>zcjqrws>revision)
Hinduism
Marriage
Many Hindus see marriage as a
life-long, sacred ceremony that binds a man and woman together. It takes the
Hindu couple into the second ashrama and is believed by many to be
the right situation in which to have children.
Marriage is also viewed by many
Hindus as the right place in which to enjoy sexual pleasure, which is allowed
as part of the life aim of kama. Many Hindu deities are
portrayed as having partners and children:
v Shiva and Parvati are
the parents of Lord Ganesh
v Rama and Sita had
twins called Luv and Kush.
However, not all relationships in
Hindu scriptures are conventional; in the Mahabharata, Draupadi is married
to all five Pandava princes.
Vivah Sansksar is the term used to describe
the sacraments performed during the wedding ceremony. This symbolises
that the marriage is an important stage of life and will mark the beginning of
a life-long union.( https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zh732sg/revision/6)
Arranged marriage
Traditionally, arranged
marriages began from a need to find husbands and wives for those living in
poverty and in villages. Travel was rare and people soon ran out of people to
marry they were not related to.
Hindu teachings forbid people
marrying anyone less than seven genetic steps removed; this means they cannot
marry even distant cousins. This is taken seriously and the first thing many
Hindus check about a suitable partner is whether they are related - even
distantly. In the past, research relied on information from travelers or
visitors about people in other villages. Sometimes, marriages would be arranged
without the couple meeting beforehand, because they couldn't afford to travel.
Another motivation was that parents
wanted to create a second family for their children, in case they died while
the children were still young. A marriage may have been arranged while the
children were very young
According to William
Abraham (1987: 22): Marriage in African tradition is the
joining of two families through the union of one man and one woman and their
children, always to the exclusion of all other men as regards the woman, and in
monogamous societies, to the exclusion of all other women as regards the man.
Traditional
marriage according to the historical norms of a given society is usually for
the primary purpose of establishing a family. Although prenuptial customs vary
in different cultures, a traditional marriage generally follows a period of
courtship, public announcement of wedding plans, and a wedding ceremony.
Some Common Attributes of Marriage
1. Has
to do with the involvement of males and females or persons of the opposite sex
who have agreed to take each other as husband and wife;
2. Some
groups (especially the Catholic Church) are of the view that marriage is
indissoluble but others believed that they can divorce and it is recognizable.
3. The union allows for sexual interaction that may or not lead to the raising of children
4. Marriage has to do with confirmation of certain rights and responsibilities
5. Marriage connects together a wide range of people by creating kinship, parents, brothers, sisters, blood relatives of the partners and may even lead to connecting even communities, states and countries.
6. It gives rights to each other’s sexuality, labour and property. To further buttress this idea, it is the duty of the couple to satisfy each other sexually and should own things in common that is to say that what belongs the man equally belongs to the wife and vice versa.
Types
of Marriage
Marriages are of different types based on the number and kinds of men and women involved in it, such as:
v Polygyny: marriage
between one woman and two or more men.
Polyandry: marriage between one woman and two or more men. The two best-known areas in which polyandry was studied and continued to be practiced into the 21st century are the Plateau of Tibet (a region shared by India, Nepal, and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China) and the Marquesas Islands in the South Pacific.
v Polygamy: the practice or custom of having more than one wife or husband at the same time.
v Fraternal Polyandry: it a marriage in which several brothers share
one wife. Example it is practiced among
Tibetans in Nepal and parts of China, in which two or more brothers are married
to the same wife, with the wife having equal "sexual access" to them.
v Sororal Polyandry: marriage
in which many sisters share a particular man as their husband.
v Levirate:
marriage between a man and the widow of his elder brother
v Sororate:
marriage between a man and the sister of his dead wife
v Same-Sex
Marriage:
two
individuals of the same gender. This is a trending thing in Nigeria today, and
being influenced by the rich people in our mist; at this time of hunger and
starvation a lot of youths are being lured into this act not for the fun but
just to get money for survival or to belong among the wealthy group. In our
tradition and custom, it is an abomination to the highest order. Trying to
destabilize our normal way of life and accepting a horrible and disgusting way
of living a normal life. By this we have sold our honour and accepted to live
with shame and stigmatization. Same sex marriage is now gaining influence in
our society; an urgent attention is needed; order wise the growing ones may see
it as a normal way of life. The world should say no this atrocious act of life.
The church, traditionalist and other form of religion should see that this does
not gain interest in our way of life.
v Ghost marriage: is marriage with a dead person or between dead people. In Chinese tradition, a ghost marriage is a marriage in which one or both parties are deceased. Other forms of ghost marriage are practiced worldwide, notably in France since 1959. The origins of Chinese ghost marriage are largely unknown, but reports of it being practiced today can still be found. Also in South Sudan, a ghost marriage is a marriage where a deceased groom is replaced by his brother. The brother serves as a stand in to the bride, and any resulting children are considered children of the deceased spouse. Under French law posthumous marriages are possible as long as evidence exists that the deceased person had the intention while alive of wedding their partner. ... According to Christophe Caput, the mayor who married Jaskiewicz, her request was "rock solid"
v Child marriage: Child Marriage is defined as a marriage of
a girl or boy before the age of 18 and refers to both formal marriages and
informal unions in which children under the age of 18 live
with a partner as if married. ... Child marriage violates children's rights
and places them at high risk of violence, exploitation, and abuse. Giving a
daughter in marriage allows parents to reduce family expenses
by ensuring they have one less person to feed, clothe and educate. Families may
also see investing in their son's education as more worthwhile investment. That
is the purpose of child marriage.
Child Marriage is defined as a
marriage of a girl or boy before the age of 18 and refers to both formal
marriages and informal unions in which children under the age of 18 live with a
partner as if married. Child marriage affects both girls and boys, but it
affects girls disproportionately, especially in South Asia.
South Asia has the highest rates of child marriage in the world. Almost half (45%) of all women aged 20-24 years reported being married before the age of 18. Almost one in five girls (17%) is married before the age of 15.
UNICEF’s approach to ending child
marriage in South Asia recognises the complex nature of the problem, and the
socio-cultural and structural factors underpinning the practice.
Solution
UNICEF’s approach to ending child
marriage in South Asia recognises the complex nature of the problem, and the
socio-cultural and structural factors underpinning the practice. UNICEF’s
approach, therefore, envisions success in two timeframes. In the short term
(5-10 years), UNICEF sees a critical mass of children, families, and
communities changing their attitudes and behaviours; in the longer term (10-30
years), UNICEF sees aspirations for all children upheld by new social norms
UNICEF considers five entry points to accelerate these changes:
(i)
to
increase agency and resources for adolescents – especially girls- at risk of
and affected by child marriage;
(ii) (ii) to enhance legal and development policy frameworks for an enabling environment that protects the rights of adolescent girls and boys;
(iii) (iii) to increase the generation and use of a robust evidence base for advocacy, programming, learning and tracking progress;
(iv) (iv) to enhance systems and services that respond to the needs of adolescents at risk of or affected by child marriage; and
(v)
(v) to increase social action, acceptance, and
visibility around investing in and supporting girls, and shifting social
expectations relating to girls, including by engaging boys and men. At the
global level, child marriage is included in Goal 5 “Achieve gender equality and
empower all women and girls” under Target 5.3 “Eliminate all harmful practices,
such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation”.
In 2016, UNICEF and UNFPA joined forces through a
Global Programme to Accelerate Action to End Child Marriage in 12 countries
with the highest rates of child brides. In South Asia, it is implemented in
Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. For the first time, existing strategies in areas
like health, education, child protection and water and sanitation, are coming
together to form a unique holistic programme with shared plans and goals. The
programme will work in partnership woth governments, civil society
organizations and yound people themselves and adopt methods that have proven to
work at scale.
(https://www.unicef.org/rosa/what-we-do/child-protection/child-marriage).
Conflict in Marriage
Conflict in marriage is inevitable.
In fact, not only is conflict in marriage inevitable, but it
is also perfectly normal. It is a part of life.
Conflicts
are bound to arise in terms of relationship in marriage. Conflict is said to be
natural to human nature. This same conflict strengthens or tightens
relationship in marriage. Clashes of interest lead to conflict. Every normal
human being is bound to encounter conflict.
Marital
conflict is not just a difference of opinion. Rather, it is a series of events
that have been poorly managed so as to deeply damage the marriage relationship.
The issues of marriage have festered to the point that stubbornness, pride,
anger, hurt and bitterness prevent effective marriage communication.
Researchers also have identified several major sources of conflict,
i.e., violent behaviors of husbands, lack of cooperation in the family,
inability to spend enough time together, issues related to children and other
families, lack of effective communication, and financial problems.
We
have various common problems in marriage such as:
v Communication gap: Most families complain about the way the spouse treat each other when it comes to communication. Bearing grudges can only lead to worsening the situation. Most men and women are complicated some refuse to bare their mind to the extent that they use silence measure to suffer each other. Lack of communication has caused one partner losing his or her life when in need of the other is urgently needed. Some persons with critical ailment need not to run out of communication, dialogue is the only solution for a happy family.
v Ignominy: Every human being wants to be respected and be treated with high
regard. No one enjoys shunning down or disgraced. Showing I don’t care attitude
is a big problem in modern day marriage. More especially when the two have a
mouth watering job. In this case nobody cares. Caring is the most important
thing in marriage. The scripture says wife, be submissive to your husband and
husband love your wife (Ephesians 5: 22 - 33). It's not uncommon for one spouse to
try to change his or her partner but it should be handled with love and care.
v Lack of Sexual Intimacy and satisfaction: a lot of reasons couples lose interest in sex ranging from medical problems to emotional issues. Generally, sexual problems trigger a vicious cycle where it’s difficult to want sex when you feel emotionally distant from your partner and it’s difficult to feel emotionally attached without experiencing sexual intimacy. To get past sexual indifference, couples need to discuss and resolve their emotional issues.
v Emotional or Sexual Infidelity: this is a great problem in the family. When a man or woman has no feeling for sex. This is mostly found in a woman that has reached menopause. Most of the time the husband complains and also may go outside for sexual satisfaction. Menopausal women should find a solution to see that they do not deny their husband sex. It is not a guarantee for men to go outside marriage in search of sexual satisfaction. The two should solve their problems together for a lasting solution for a peaceful marriage.
v Fighting About Money: Some families fight for money which may lead to the end of the marriage. Every family should learn how to manage their finance no matter how little it is. When there is love, no matter how little is the money, can be managed. Family should learn to cut their cloth according to their size. The root of all evil is money; in the other way round money brings love, happiness and easy life. Working hard towards making money is also important. Wife and husband should stick together and work hard to make the ends meet. Today’s woman is no longer consumer of wealth but provider of wealth; therefore every woman should look up to a successful marriage.
v Selfishness: This is the most dangerous way of life. A selfish husband can never make his wife happy so also applicable to a wife. The family should try to be selfless. This will bring the two together and united in love. The word “Myself” has caused a lot of havoc in the family. We should try to carry along our partner. Learning how to share no matter how small it is, is very important in life. It all begins in the family to train their child not to be selfish, and making the kids realizing the essence of sharing in fact at the cradle.
v Value Differences: Our men must value the women. Treating a woman as a second-class citizen is very wrong. For the fact that women are weaker sex men shouldn’t be taken advantage of that. Every woman should accord with respect from the husband. Men should learn that a poor woman today may become rich tomorrow; and what becomes the faith of the man when such happens. Husband should be careful the way he handles his wife. There should be value attached to every woman order wise there should be a problem. In the same vein a woman must value her husband, no matter how rich she is. Looking down on people is totally wrong. No human being is valueless. Everyone is important any time any day. Therefore, husband and wife should value each other in other to raise a responsible child in society.
v
Different Life Stages:
We
all have stages of life in our marriage. Starting from young stage to old
stage. Every stage in marriage should be important. No stage should be
neglected. Loneliness kills quickly. When the children are left (grown up) the
husband and wife are meant to be together. The last stage in marriage is very
critical. When the husband is dead it becomes a problem to the wife and also if
it is the wife the husband becomes lonely and fragile. This stage is critical
and it is expected that the children rally round their parents if the two are
still alive. Even if it is one survivor, appropriate care must be given to the
person. The person must never be lonely order wise may die or develop certain
ailment that may lead him/her to grave. Every stage in married life should be
handled with care for a long lasting marriage.
(https://collaborativedivorcetexas.com/ten-common-problems-marriage/)
Religion: a system of
beliefs, values, and practices related to the sacred, divine, or supernatural,
often involving a higher power or powers. Current definition of religion
especially those of theological character are usually expressed in terms of
belief. Sometimes religion is defined in terms of feeling, and sometimes in
terms of conduct or conation, but the popular idea is that religion and belief
are identical. James Martineau for instance defined religion as the belief in
an ever-living God that is a Devine mind and will ruling the universe and
holding moral relations with mankind; Bishop Buttler, sees religion as the
belief in one God or creator and moral Governor of the world and in a future
state of retribution implying immorality and many writers among whom is the
philosopher Immanuel Kant have made the belief in immortality the soul basis of
religion.
Religion: human beings’ relation to that which they regard as holy,
sacred, absolute, spiritual, divine, or worthy of especial reverence. It is
also commonly regarded as consisting of the way people deal with ultimate
concerns about their lives and their fate after death. In many traditions,
this relation and these concerns are expressed in terms of one’s relationship
with or attitude toward gods or spirits; in more humanistic or naturalistic forms of religion, they are expressed in
terms of one’s relationship with or attitudes toward the broader human community or the natural world. In many religions,
texts are deemed to have scriptural status, and people are esteemed to be
invested with spiritual or moral authority. Believers and worshippers participate in and
are often enjoined to perform devotional or contemplative practices such
as prayer, meditation, or particular rituals. Worship, moral conduct,
right belief, and participation in religious institutions are among
the constituent elements of the religious life. In Nigeria,
religion has been politicized. Our politician sees it as an avenue to poison
the mind of the different religious practices for their selfish gain. Religion
should be what unites us with God and people; so as to see each other as
brothers and sisters, no matter where one finds oneself.
The major
religions of the world (Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Confucianism, Christianity,
Taoism, and Judaism) differ in many respects, including how each religion is
organized and the belief system each upholds. Other differences include the
nature of belief in a higher power, the history of how the world and the
religion began, and the use of sacred texts and objects.
(https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion)
Further, Durkheim
placed himself in the positivist tradition, meaning that he thought of his
study of society as dispassionate and scientific. He was deeply interested in
the problem of what held complex modern societies together. Religion, he
argued, was an expression of social cohesion.
Religion, for
Durkheim, is not imaginary, although he does deprive it of what many believers
find essential. Religion is very real;
it is an expression of society itself, and indeed, there is no society that
does not have religion. We perceive as individuals a force greater than
ourselves and give that perception a supernatural face. We then express ourselves
religiously in groups, which for Durkheim makes the symbolic power greater. Religion is an expression of our collective
consciousness, which is the fusion of all of our individual consciousness,
which then creates a reality of its own.
Traditional
Religion
In Nigeria, there are three main religions
recognized by the people; Christianity, Islam and the Indigenous
religion. These religions have differences that have brought about unrest as
the tolerance level has got to a point of polarity. The various unrests have
led to national insecurity of the country.
African
religions, religious beliefs and practices of the peoples of Africa.
It should be noted that any attempt to generalize about the nature of “African
religions” risks wrongly implying that there is homogeneity among all African cultures. In fact, Africa is a vast continent encompassing both geographic variation and tremendous
cultural diversity. Each of the more than 50 modern countries that
occupy the continent has its own particular history, and each in turn comprises numerous ethnic groups with different
languages and unique customs and beliefs. African religions are as diverse as the continent is varied.
Cultural Identity
Religion plays a crucial role for a person in giving a cultural
identity. Each religion has festivals, traditions, mythologies which form a
part of the tangible and intangible heritage of the country. Thus, religion
contributes in order to protect this heritage and also adds to the diversity in
the country.
Values and Ethics
Religion helps in creating an ethical framework and also a
regulator for values in day to day life. This particular approach helps in
character building of a person. In other words, Religion acts as an agency of
socialization. Thus, religion helps in building values like love, empathy,
respect, and harmony.
Spiritual Connect
People are always on the quest of fulfilling the economic and
material pursuits in today’s world. It is the religion which plays a crucial
role in establishing our connection to the divine and developing the belief
that there is a supreme energy that acts as a regulator in our day to day
lives. Thus, the components of prayer, chants, hymns, etc. create the spiritual
bond.
The Idea of Welfare
Each and every religion promotes its philosophy and the crux of it
has always been the welfare and wellness of the people. For example, in the
Sanatana Dharma, there are ideas like Vasudaiva Kutumbakam (the whole world is
a family), Sarve Sukhina Bhavantu (let everyone be happy) which nurture and
cultivate love and compassion in the society.
(https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what-is-the-importance-of-religion-in-our-lives)
Benefits of Religion
Religion has been a feature of the
world for as long as it came into existence. Different religious traditions
have played a major role in the evolution of society. This is a look at some of
the benefits that the world has received from religion.
The main benefits of religion include:
1. Teachings of goodwill and the golden rule
(do unto others what you want others to do to you)
2. Promoting ethics and good morals in
political, social and economic life
3. Inner strength and courage to do the
right thing always
4. The message of forgiveness and love
5. Religious art/music
6. Instigation of Fear of God
7. Sense of community and belonging
8. Selfless Service and regards on others
“Each religion has helped mankind.
Paganism increased in man the light of beauty, the largeness and height of his
life, his aim at a many-sided perfection; Christianity gave him some vision of
divine love and charity; Buddhism has shown him a noble way to be wiser,
gentler, purer, Judaism and Islam how to be religiously faithful in action and
zealously devoted to God; Hinduism has opened to him the largest and
profoundest spiritual possibilities. “ Sri Aurobindo (Essays
in Philosophy and Yoga, p.211)
Religion has often been a vehicle
for intolerance and fundamentalism; religion has been used as an excuse for
persecution and war. But, religion in its purest form has provided many
benefits for humanity.
Teachings of goodwill and the
golden rule
“We must be bright and cheerful.
Long faces do not make religion. Religion should be the most joyful thing in
the world, because it is the best.”
Swami Vivekananda
founder of Hindus Religion
One of the
greatest spiritual leaders of India, Swami Vivekananda is credited with
bringing the glory of the Hindu philosophy to the global platform. Born on
January 12, 1863, as Narendra Nath Datta in Kolkata into an aristocratic
Bengali Kayastha family, he became a disciple of the famed saint of
Dakshineshwar, Swami Ramkrishna Paramhansa. He renounced worldly pleasures and
became a sanyasi, not to roam aimlessly, but for the service of humanity. Swami
Vivekanada was a key figure for introducing the Indian Vendanta and philosophies
of Yoga to the world which put India on the world's spiritual map. It was his
famous speech at the World’s Parliament of Religions in Ch
The
structural-functional approach to religion has its roots in Emile Durkheim’s
work on religion. Durkheim argued that religion is, in a sense, the celebration and even (self-) worship of human society.
Given this approach, Durkheim proposed that religion has three major functions
in society:
i.
it provides social cohesion to help maintain
social solidarity through shared rituals and beliefs
ii.
social
control to enforce religious-based morals and norms to help maintain conformity
and control in society
iii.
and it offers meaning and purpose to answer
any existential questions.
iv.
It
provides spiritual guidance.
Spiritual
Guidance:
v.
Providing
a sense of purpose and meaning.
vi.
Offering
guidance on moral and ethical issues.
vii.
Facilitating
connection with the divine or transcendent.
viii.
Give
community and social support.
Moral
Values:
ix.
Establishing
moral principles and codes of conduct.
x.
Shaping
individual and collective behavior.
xi.
Promoting
social cohesion and cooperation.
Community
and Social Support:
xii.
Creating
a sense of belonging and identity.
xiii.
Providing
emotional support and comfort.
xiv.
Facilitating
social connections and networks.
Influence of religion on human
behavior and society:
i.
It
helps in Shaping moral values and ethics.
ii.
Providing
comfort and solace.
iii.
It
also creates conflict and division.
Shaping Moral Values and Ethics:
iv.
Influencing
individual and collective behavior.
v.
Informing
laws and social norms.
vi.
Shaping
cultural values and traditions.
Providing
Comfort and Solace:
vii.
Offering
emotional support during times of crisis.
viii.
Providing
a sense of hope and optimism.
ix.
Facilitating
coping mechanisms and resilience.
Creating
Conflict and Division:
x.
Fueling
disagreements and disputes over doctrine and practice.
xi.
Contributing
to social and cultural divisions.
xii.
Inspiring
violence and extremism (in some cases).
Additional
Influences of Religion
xiii.
Cultural
Expression:
influencing art, literature, music, and other creative endeavors.
xiv.
Social
Justice:
promoting activism and advocacy for social change.
xv.
Personal
Growth:
facilitating individual development and self-awareness.
xvi.
Interfaith
Dialogue:
fostering understanding and cooperation between different religious traditions.
Types of Religion:
Monotheism: belief in one all-powerful deity
(e.g., Christianity, Islam, Judaism).
Polytheism: belief in multiple deities
(e.g., Hinduism, ancient Greek religion).
Pantheism: belief that the divine is
present in all things (e.g., some indigenous religions).
Atheism: lack of belief in any deity or
higher power.
Agnosticism: uncertainty or doubt about the
existence of a deity or higher power.
Marx and the “Opiate of the Masses”
Karl
Marx argues that religion works to calm uncertainty over our role in the
universe and in society, and to maintain the status quo.
One
of the most frequently paraphrased statements of Karl Marx - , religion is the opium of the people. It was translated from the German
original, “Die Religion… ist das Opium des Volkes,” and is often referred to as
“religion is the opiate of the masses. ” Taken in context, Marx is arguing that
religion was constructed by people to calm uncertainty over our role in the
universe and in society.
Early
social theorists offered explanations and analysis of religion in terms of the
function of religion in society, the role of religion in the life of the
individual, and the nature (and origin) of religion. With ‘the social-conflict
approach,’ Karl Marx argued that religion plays a significant role in
maintaining the status quo. Marx argued that religion accomplishes this by
promising rewards in the after-life rather than in this life. By focusing
attention on otherworldly rewards, religion pacifies members by providing a
worldview that deflects attention that would otherwise be directed at the
inequalities of this world.
For further study visit: (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-functionalist-perspective-on-religion/).
THE ROLE/AIM OF CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
According to Dave (2006) the aim of
citizenship education is to develop young people into responsible citizens, who
understand their rights and responsibilities and can play an active part in the
society. In other words, citizenship education enables a citizen to be well
informed, gather facts, reject ethnocentrism, religious war, and crisis and
encourage national consciousness. Below are some of the roles or aims of
citizenship education:
-
To create an
active and responsible citizenry who should be willing to participate in the
life of the nation and the wider world and play his/her part in the democratic
process.
-
To make people
to be aware of their rights and responsibilities as citizens
-
To enable people to be active in the activities going
on in their communities.
-
To make/enable
people to be willing to accept and perform their civic duties for the survival
of the nation
-
To develop in individuals the skills, attitudes and
values that will enable them to show concern for the well-being/welfare and
dignity of others
-
To inculcate in
the learners, the body of knowledge, set of values and behavioural orientation
that are considered vital and necessary for the sustenance and well being of
the people.
-
To equip people with the requisite knowledge and skills
for active participation in public affairs.
- To convey knowledge, skills and attitudes or orientation that produce an over-riding national identity over and above all other divisive cleavages.
Generally, the aim of citizenship education is to prepare citizens for active, informed and responsible participation in the democratic process. However, these roles of citizenship education as highlighted above can be categories into different broad objectives of citizenship education as discussed below.
OBJECTIVES OF CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
The
objectives of citizenship education are discussed under the following
sub-titles:
1. Political
Education
2. Human
Rights Education
3. Creation
of National Awareness and Consciousness
4.
Propagation of Societal Norms and Values
5. Global
Education
6. Participation in Public Affairs
Political Education – This entails
imparting knowledge on the various political institutions and processes within
the state. This will enable the citizens to know the functions and
relationships or interconnectedness of these institutions. This will also
enable the citizens to participate actively in the polity through interaction
with others, monitoring government’s actions and influencing public policy making
in line with democratic principles.
Human Rights Education - Citizenship
education equips or educates citizens on their rights and procedures for
redress in cases of infringements by government, government agencies,
individuals, groups and corporate bodies. In addition citizenship education
imparts knowledge on the duties and consequences of failure to perform duties
by citizens.
Creation of National Awareness and
Consciousness or National Identity- Citizenship education convey knowledge,
skills and attitudes or orientations that produce an over-riding national
identity over and above all other divisive cleavages. The essence of this
objective is to achieve a sustained attitude change, to elicit commitment to or
identification with one’s nation.
Propagation of Societal Norms and Values
– Citizenship education upholds and propagates norms and values anchored in the
ethos of the society. This is usually embodied in the culture, tradition and
religion of the various groups and the constitution of the country. Some of
these norms and values are codified as laws that enjoy universal application.
Citizenship education also fosters the values of unity in diversity, peaceful
resolution of conflicts and consequently, national cohesion that is
prerequisite for the sustenance of Nigeria’s democracy.
Global Education - Citizenship
education exposes citizens to the knowledge and skills that enable them
function effectively as informed members of the global community. Global
education enables the citizens to understand and appreciate the rationale for
international relations, the workings of the international system, benefits of
membership of international bodies and the various regional and sub-regional
alliances to individual states and the global community.
Participation in Public Affairs – Citizenship education equip the citizens with knowledge and skill to participate in the social, political and economic processes of nation/country.
COMPONENTS OF CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
These
comprise the major issues that are appropriate and adequate to the
coverage/scope of citizenship education. These are the areas in which
citizenship education curriculum should cover or embrace. The US Center for Civic Education
(1994) identified three essential components of citizenship education as;
- Civic
Knowledge
- Civic
Skills
- Civic Disposition.
IMPORTANCE OF CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
Citizenship
education is very important for preparing young people to understand their
democratic life and human rights for the challenges and opportunities of a
changing world. It is essential for schools and colleges to teach citizenship
and they are expected to demonstrate
citizenship through the way they operate.
The essence of teaching citizenship education
is to build character and
develop skills such as
communication, initiative, interactive and team work. Democracies need active,
informed and responsible citizens; citizens who are willing and able to take
responsibility for themselves and their communities and contribute to the
political process.
The benefits
of this course include:
i. It helps
students to develop self-confidence
and successfully deal with significant life changes and challenges.
ii. It
enables students to make positive
contribution by developing the expertise and experience needed to claim
their rights and understand their responsibilities and preparing them for the
challenges and opportunities of adult and working life.
iii. For
schools and other educational organizations, it helps to produce motivated and
responsible learners, who relate positively to each other, to staff and to the
surrounding community. For society it helps to create an active and responsible
citizenry, willing to participate in the life of the nation and the wider world
and play its part in the democratic process.
Essential Elements of Citizenship Education:
Citizenship
education involves a wide range of different elements of learning. These include:
1. Knowledge and understanding:
About topics such as: laws and rules, the democratic process, the media, human
rights, diversity, money and the economy, sustainable development and world as
a global community; justice, equality, freedom, authority and the rule of law;
2. Skills and aptitudes:
Critical thinking, analyzing information, expressing opinions, taking part in
discussions and debates, negotiating, conflict resolution and participating in
community action;
3. Values and dispositions: Respect for justice, democracy and the rule of law, openness, tolerance, courage to defend a point of view and willingness to: listen to, work with and stand up for others.
TYPES OF CITIZENSHIP
1. Single Citizenship – refers to a
citizen that belongs to one/single country. For example a citizen by birth is a
single citizenship.
2. Dual Citizenship- Refers to a citizen
of two countries i.e a citizen that belongs to two countries. There are
conditions for dual citizenship and these conditions are always stated in the
constitutions of various countries of the world.
Dual
citizenship is allowed for citizens by birth and registration or
naturalization. It should be noted that in dual citizenship, citizens by birth
cannot lose the citizenship of their countries.
There are
basically three modes/methods of citizenship acquisition in Nigeria. These are:
1. By Birth
2. By
Naturalization
3. By
Registration
a. All
persons born in Nigeria before independence whose either parents or
grandparents belongs or belonged to a community indigenous to Nigeria.
b. All
persons born in Nigeria after independence whose either parents or grandparents
is citizen of Nigeria
c. All
persons born outside Nigeria whose either parent is a Nigerian citizen
However, certain
conditions must be fulfilled before an individual becomes a citizen of Nigeria
through naturalization. These conditions are stipulated in Section 27 of the 1999 constitution of Nigeria as follows:
a. The
prospective citizen /person/ must apply for certificate of naturalization to
the president of the country.
b. The
prospective citizen/person must have resided in Nigeria for a specified number
of years usually, for a period of fifteen years or for at least fifteen years
of the twenty years, including twelve consecutive months immediately preceding
the date of his application.
c. The
prospective citizen/ person/applicant must be certified or approved by the
Governor of the state of residence that he/she is acceptable in the community
in which he/she lives.
d. The
prospective citizen must be a person of good character
e. The
prospective citizen must be a person of full age and capacity (18 years and
above)
f. The
prospective citizen must have taken an oath of allegiance to the state as
stated in the seventh schedule of 1999 constitution
g. The
prospective citizen must show clear intension of his/her desire to be domiciled
in Nigeria.
h. The
prospective citizen is required to possess a good knowledge or have a good
command of the language of the people whose citizenship he intend to acquire,
i.e, he/she must understand English Language which is the country’s Lingua
Franca.
The applicant who satisfies the above conditions will be granted citizenship of Nigeria through naturalization. However, it should be noted that these conditions stipulated in Nigeria’s constitution for the process of citizenship acquisition through naturalization may not be same condition to other states. For example, in USA a prospective citizen must satisfy residence requirement for a specified number of years usually five years and in Switzerland for a period of twelve years and so on.
Citizenship
by Registration- This is applicable to a foreign woman who
marries a citizen of her country of residence and a child born in a country
whose parents are resident but not nationals of the country. In other words, citizenship
by registration applies to woman who is married outside her country of birth
and a child born in a country whose either parents or grandparents are not a
citizen of the country. For example, a Liberian woman who is married to a
Nigerian may register as a citizen of Nigeria. There are also conditions which
a foreigner must satisfy before he/she becomes a citizen of Nigeria through
registration. These are:
-
He/she must have attained full age, i.e. not
less than 18 years.
-
He/she is a person of good character.
-
He/she has shown a clear intention of the desire
to be domiciled in Nigeria.
-
He/she has taken the Oath of Allegiance
prescribed in the Seventh Schedule of the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria.
Citizenship by Descent – This is a kind
of citizenship acquired through blood ties i.e it is acquired if either
grandparent is a citizen of the country of residence.
Just as citizenship
can be acquired, it can also be lost. Only citizens by naturalization and
registration are liable to loss of citizenship. This implies that citizens by
birth cannot lose the citizenship of their countries of birth.
Countries
reserve the right to deny persons of or withdraw their citizenship from persons
who contravene the conditions for citizenship.
Procedures
for loss or forfeiture of Nigerian citizenship are;
a.
Renunciation
b. Denial/
Deprivation
c. Dual
Citizenship Status
- Renunciation – this implies that a person may loss his/her citizenship by voluntary renouncement. There are requirements in which a person can fulfill before renunciation. For example, in Nigeria, the constitutional requirements for loss of citizenship through renunciation is stated in Section 29(1)- (3) of the 1999 constitution.
- Denial/Deprivation – This involves the revocation, cancellation or withdrawal of legal recognition previously granted to an individual as a citizen of a country if such individual failed to observe the terms or conditions granted as a citizen either through naturalization or registration. For example, in Nigeria, a person loses his/her citizenship status within a period of seven years after becoming naturalized if he gets sentenced to imprisonment for a term of not less than 3 years. This condition is also stipulated in Section 30 (1) – (2) of 1999 constitution.
- Dual Citizenship – Any person who has a
dual citizenship cannot be granted citizenship of Nigeria either through
naturalization or registration. In other words, any person who belongs to other
nations by birth and naturalization or registration cannot be granted citizenship
of Nigeria. However, a person may be granted citizenship of Nigeria by
naturalization or registration when he/she still retains the citizenship of
another country other than by birth but on the condition that he/she will
renounce the citizenship of other country within a period of not more than
twelve months.
These are
responsibilities expected of the citizens to perform in the country. They are those
things/roles/task/ the citizens ought to do or perform to help the government
as a patriotic citizen of the country. Duties of Nigerian citizens are
stipulated in section 24 of the 1999
constitution of Nigeria. It states that it shall be the duty of every
citizen to:
a). Abide by
this constitution, respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag, the
National Anthem, the National Pledge and legitimate authorities.
b). Help to
enhance the power, prestige and good name of Nigeria, defend Nigeria and render
national service as may be required.
c). Respect
the dignity of other citizens and the rights and legitimate interests of others
and live in unity and harmony and spirit of common brotherhood.
d). Make
positive and useful contributions to the advancement, progress and well-being
of the community where he resides.
e). Render
assistance to appropriate and lawful agencies in the maintenance of law and
order.
f). Declare
his income honestly to the appropriate and lawful agencies and pay his tax
promptly.
A good
citizen is one whose behavior is consistent with the canons of self-respect and
social justice and he/she should be reliable both in peace and war.
The qualities
of a good citizen are embodied in the duties of a citizen as follows:
1. A good citizen
must always respect the national flag, national pledge and national anthem.
This will be done by standing upright when the national anthem is being sung or
when the pledge is being recited.
2. A good
citizen must respect the rights of other people and must not interfere with
such rights. He/she must acknowledge, promote and protect human rights and
privileges guaranteed by the constitution at all times.
3. A good
citizen must be patriotic and loyal to the nation/country.
4. A good
citizen must uphold the democratic principles of constitutionalism, rule of
law, equity and justice, due process and democratic governance in all its
ramifications, as a standard of evaluation of his political behavior.
5. He must
contribute to the growth and sustenance of the nation by prompt payment of
taxes and avoidance of all forms of economic sabotage such as bribery and
corruption, embezzlement of public funds, destruction of government properties
etc.
6. A good
citizen who is of the voting age of 18 and above should exercise the right to
vote during elections.
FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS
Rights connote agreement with law, morality
and justice. Rights are legal and moral entitlements to everyone and violation
of it attracts legal action. Human rights are those rights that belong to an
individual as a consequence of being a human being. Some rights are categorized
as fundamental human rights. Fundamental human rights are natural rights and
privileges which citizens enjoy freely by virtue of birth as human being. These
rights are natural, inalienable and inherent in man. Thus, every individual at
birth is endowed with these rights. These rights have universal
application. The United Nations Organization called on all member states and
governments to incorporate in their constitutions the fundamental human rights.
Hence, these rights are contained in the constitution of every state, in line
with the UN’s Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. In Nigeria, these rights are
provided in Chapter IV Section 33- 44 of the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria. The
constitution also provided the limitations to or conditions for enjoying
fundamental human rights in section 45. It is the duty of the government to
ensure that these rights and freedoms are enjoyed within the confines of the
law of the land. These rights cannot be taken away from any citizen except
he/she commits a criminal offence against the state. These rights include:
Sec. 33: Right to life
Sec. 34: Right to dignity of human
person
Sec. 35: Right to personal liberty
Sec. 36: Right to fair hearing
Sec. 37: Right to private and family
life
Sec. 38: Right to freedom of thought,
conscience and religion
Sec. 39: Right to freedom of
expression and the press
Sec. 40: Right to peaceful assembly
and association
Sec. 41: Right to freedom of movement
Sec. 42: Right to freedom from
discrimination
Sec. 43: Right to acquire and
own immovable property anywhere in Nigeria
Sec. 44: Compulsory acquisition
of property
WAYS IN WHICH FUNDEMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS CAN
BE VIOLATED
Fundamental
human rights can be violated lawfully or unlawfully.
A. Lawful
Violation of Human Rights- These are checks on the excesses of citizens in
the course of enjoying their rights. These are violations that occur because of
government’s actions to safeguard rights for all. The reasons for lawful
violation of human rights are:
1. National
security. E.g., State of emergency, curfew etc
2. Violation
of other people’s right.
3. Criminal
offence/ imprisonment
4.
Slander/libel – any person that broadcast or publishes that is slanderous or
libelous or defamatory would lose the freedom of expression.
5. National
service- deployment for compulsory national service (NYSC).
6. Torture by
security agencies – in the course of investigation, a citizen could be subjected
to torture to extract information that could help investigation especially in
criminal cases.
7.
Confinement- a person with communicable and psychiatric ailment could be
confined to a place to avoid spread of such ailment.
B. Unlawful Violation of Human Rights – These
are illegal violation of human rights perpetrated by government officials or
private individuals. Unlawful violations of human rights include:
1. Armed
robbery.
2. Kidnapping
for ransom.
3. Military
and police brutality.
4.
Extrajudicial killings by security officials.
5. Child
labour/slavery
6. Child
trafficking.
7. Forced
prostitution.
8. Domestic
violence, e.g wife battery and child abuse.
9. Obnoxious
cultural and religious practices, e.g child marriage, discrimination against
girl-child and widow in inheritance of property.
10. Adoption
of sharia law in some northern states.
11. Military
dictatorship
12. Jungle
justice- killing of person that commits offence without trial.
WAYS OF PROTECTING HUMAN RIGHTS/SAFEGUARDS
FOR HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights
are those benefits and privileges which all human beings enjoy. They are those
rights which a citizen of a country, state or political community enjoys by
virtue of being’s human irrespective of age, sex, religion, ethnic background,
political and socio-economic status. Often time, human rights of individuals
are being violated despite all effort of human right activists to uphold the
course of justice. The need for the promotion and protection of human right is
not only recognized as the foundation of freedom and justice, but as an
integral and essential element for the preservation of peace, not only within
the confines of a particular state but a universally.
To ensure
that Nigerian citizens enjoy their fundamental human rights as enshrined in the
constitution, the government, civil society, international organizations and
other stakeholders must take action to promote and protect human rights. The
human rights of Nigerian citizens can only be properly protected and guaranteed
if and only the following are observed.Some of the ways or strategies of
protecting human rights of Nigerian citizens include:
1. Enlightenment programme
2. Setting up
Human Rights Protection Commissions
3. Independence of the Judiciary
4.
Observation of Rule of Law
5. Protection
of Human Right Defenders
6.
Strengthening the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)
7. Training
of Security Personnel
8. Quick
dispensation of justice
9. Existence
of Freedom of the Press
10.
Proscription of Vigilante Groups
11. Political
Appointments
12. Tolerance
of Self Determination Groups
1. Enlightenment Programme - Most
citizens are not aware of their fundamental human rights. Enlightenment
programme will help in educating the citizen to be conscious of their rights
and to defend it. So, one of the ways of protecting human right is enlightening
the people on their rights. Efforts should be made to ensure that people know
their rights; that way, they are informed of what they must do to have their
rights and report to relevant authorities when their rights are trampled upon.
The mass media, town hall meeting and campaigns are good avenues to drive such
information.
2. Setting Up Human Rights Protection
Commissions - One of the ways of ensuring that human rights are protected
is by setting up legal and institutional mechanisms for protection of human
rights. In Nigeria, some of the commissions set to protect human rights
include; National Human Rights Commission, the Public Complaints Commission
(Ombudsman) and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. These commissions in
one way or the other serves as a mechanism to enhance the enjoyment of human
rights, creating an enabling environment for extra-judicial recognition, promotion
and enforcement of human rights, providing a forum for public enlightenment and
dialogue on human rights issues thereby limiting controversy and confrontation.
For instance, Ombudsman is a Public Complaints Commission, through which
any aggrieved citizen, can seek a redress against the state or any of her
agencies
3. Independence of the Judiciary - The
judiciary is the arm of government that is empowered to interpret the laws of
the land and adjudicate disputes. It is the body responsible to protect the
constitution and guard against the violation of the citizens fundamental human
rights. The independence of the judiciary means that the judiciary should carry
out its constitutional roles without interference by other organs of
government, e.i the executive and the legislative. An independent judiciary is
a check to the excesses of the legislative and executive arms of government.
The independence of the judiciary is pertinent because it enables the judicial
arm of the government to discharge its constitutional duties without bias, fear
or favour thereby enhancing impartiality in the administration of justice,
thus, safeguards the human rights of the citizens.
4. Observation of Rule of Law – The
theory of rule of law was propounded by A.V. Dicey. Rule of law is a concept
that emphasized the supremacy of the law, equality before the law and civil
liberty. The supremacy of the law implies that the law of the land is supreme
and everybody must be subject to the law (constitution) i.e act according to
its provisions. Equality before the law implies that everybody is equal before
the law and nobody is above the law while civil liberty is otherwise called
fundamental human rights. They are the legitimate claim the citizen could make
on the state. They are those actions an individual is entitled to claim as a
human being. The rule of law upholds the predominance of law over arbitrary
action. The observance of rule of law limits the abuse of power by public
officials. It also promotes and protects human rights. It protects citizens
from all forms of abuse based on sex, age, status, religion, ethnic and
political affiliations.
5. Protection of Human Right Defenders
- Human Rights Defenders are those individuals and organizations that advocates
against the abuse of fundamental human rights of the citizens. These are human
rights activists, legal practitioners, social crusaders, press men, civil
society organizations, and international human rights organizations such as
Amnesty international. The declaration of Human Rights Defenders was adopted on
December 9, 1995, in the commemoration of the 50th anniversary of
the United Nations. According to Kofi Annan (1995), the declaration rests on a
basic premise that when the rights of human rights defenders are violated, all
our rights are in jeopardy and all of us are made less safe. Hence, the aim of
the Declaration of Human Rights Defenders is to protect human rights defenders
from harassment from government for exposing human right abuses, thereby
promoting and protecting human rights.
6 Strengthening the National Human Rights
Commission - The National Human Rights Commission was established in 1995
in line with the resolution of the General Assembly of the United Nations which
enjoins all member states to establish human right institutions for the
promotion and protection of human rights. The mandate of the commission
including; creating awareness and education on human rights; to develop a
National Plan of action for the promotion and protection of human rights. The
commission should be strengthened and empowered (adequately funded) to be able
to tackle issues of human rights through various activities, ranging from
public enlightenment and education, conflict resolution, peace building,
research advocacy and training programmes on contemporary issues in the field
of human rights.
7. Training and Retraining of Security
Personnel - The security personnel often time violates the rights of
individuals. Therefore, the police, army, and other security personnel should
be properly trained in crises management and internationally acknowledged human
rights standard as in the United Nations code of conduct for law enforcement
officials and basic principles on the use of force and fire arms by law
enforcement officials.
8. Quick dispensation of justice - Quick
dispensation of justice is another element in protecting rights and liberties
of citizens. As the saying goes, “justice delayed is justice denied,” the
judicial process should not only be fast but should also be accessible to the
poor through a reasonable cost of litigation
9. Existence of Freedom of the Press - A
free press that will report and disseminate information, as well as educating
the citizenry about government policies and its implications on their rights
and liberties. A democratic government also helps to safeguard human rights,
because democratic institutions such as the Senate, House of Representatives
and State Assemblies are composed of elected people who are representing
different constituencies in the federation. They protect members of their
constituents through public hearing, motions and bills to protect citizens’
rights.
10. Proscription of Vigilante Groups -
The modes of operations of most vigilante groups have been characterized by torture,
extra-judicial killings and other forms of human rights abuses. Therefore,
vigilante groups should be banned the government should engage the Civil
Defence Officers in guarding and protecting lives and properties in the
communities.
11.
Political Appointments - Section 147(3) of the 1999 constitutions states
that the president shall appoint one minister from each state, who shall be an
indigene of such state. This provision limits ministerial and other political
appointments to only citizens that belong to communities indigenous to a state
and alienates all non –indigenes. This violates the political and civil rights
of (victims) individuals. This provision should be amended to include residency
rights for qualification for political appointments at the federal state and
local levels.
12. Tolerance of Self Determination Groups
- Over the years, there have been agitations by various groups for different
reasons peculiar to them. Such groups include; the Movement for the
Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB), the Indigenous People
of Biafra (IPOB), the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger-delta (MEND),
Niger Delta Avenger (NDA), etc. The government has one way or the other carried
out a repressive action or attack on these groups. This violates their human
rights. Therefore, the government should accommodate and tolerate these groups.
The government should also try to respond to their demands.
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For more
information consult the following texts of which these references provided a
solid foundation for exploring the concept of "Man as the Focus of Social
Studies".
Books
- "Man, and Society" by William F. Ogburn and Meyer F. Nimkoff (1958) - A classic
textbook on sociology that explores the relationship between individuals
and society.
- "The Social Construction of Reality" by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann (1966) - A seminal work on
the sociology of knowledge that examines how individuals construct and
maintain social reality.
- "Man's Search for Meaning" by Viktor E. Frankl (1946) - A powerful memoir and philosophical
exploration of human existence, purpose, and meaning.
- "The Presentation of Self in Everyday
Life" by Erving Goffman (1959) - A influential work
on social interaction and the ways individuals present themselves to
others.
Journals
- American Sociological Review - A leading journal in sociology that publishes research on
various aspects of human social behavior.
- Social Forces - A journal that explores the social, cultural, and economic
factors that shape human behavior and society.
- Journal of Social Psychology - A journal that examines the psychological aspects of human
social behavior and relationships.
- Human Relations - A journal that focuses on the study of human behavior in social
contexts, including work, family, and community.
Online Resources
- American Sociological Association (ASA) - A professional organization for sociologists that
provides resources, research, and news on sociology and social studies.
- (Link unavailable) - A website that offers articles, research, and resources on
sociology and social studies.
- Social (link unavailable) - A website that provides resources, lesson plans, and research
on social studies education.
- Psychology Today - A website that publishes articles and research on psychology
and human behavior.
Research Papers
- "The Social Self" by George Herbert Mead (1913) - A classic paper on the
development of the self and social identity.
- "The Looking-Glass Self" by Charles Horton Cooley (1902) - A seminal paper on the role of
social interaction in shaping self-concept.
- "The Nature of Human Nature" by Roy F. Baumeister (2005) - A paper that explores the
complexities of human nature and behavior.
- "The Social Construction of Human
Behavior" by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann (1966)
- A paper that examines the ways in which social context shapes human
behavior.
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