POL 322 International Organizations (2 Credits) C
This course will examine the, concept of international organization and its characteristics; features, the structure, functions and problems of the various international organizations listed below
i.
League of Nations
ii.
The United Nations Organizations formerly
called (U. N.O.) presently called United Nations (UN)
iii.
Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS)
iv.
European Union (EU)
v.
New Partnership for Africa’s Development
(NEPAD)
vi.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
vii.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Country (OPEC).
viii.
African Union (formerly called
Organization of African Unity (OAU) presently called (AU)
ix.
The commonwealth of Nations
International
Organizations
International
organisations are entities established by formal political agreements between
their members that have the status of international treaties; their existence
is recognised by law in their member countries; they are not treated as
resident institutional units of the countries in which they are located.
International organization is the process by which states establish and
develop formal, continuing institutional structures for the conduct of certain
aspects of their relationships with each other. It represents a reaction to the
extreme decentralization of the traditional system of international relations
and an effort by statesmen to adapt the mechanics of that system to the
requirements posed by the constantly increasing complexity of the
interdependence of states. Particular international organizations may be
regarded as manifestations of the organizing process on the international
level.
Types of International Organizations
Intergovernmental Organizations
(IGOs): Formed by agreements between
national governments. Examples include the United Nations (UN) and the World
Health Organization (WHO).
Nongovernmental Organizations
(NGOs): Formed by private groups or people,
not governments. Examples include Greenpeace and Amnesty International.
An international governmental organisation (IGO), also
referred to as an intergovernmental organisation, is an organisation with a
membership of only states. The organisation is usually founded upon a treaty,
or a multilateral agreement, and consists of more than two states. Member
states determine the way in which the organisation is run, vote within the
organisation and provide its funding.
The history of international organization
The process of international organization had its
origins in the nineteenth century, largely in Europe. Innovations associated
with the rise of industrialism and the introduction of new methods of transport
and communication stimulated the creation of special-purpose agencies, usually
called public international unions, designed to facilitate the collaboration of
governments in dealing with economic, social, and technical problems. Notable
among these were the International Telegraphic Union (1865) and the Universal
Postal Union (1874), which survived to become specialized agencies of
the United
Nations system (the former under the title International
Telecommunication Union) after World
War II. In the political field, an effort to institutionalize the dominant
role of the great powers of Europe was undertaken at the Congress
of Vienna in 1815.
While the resultant Concert
of Europe did not assume the character of a standing political
organization, the same pattern functioned until World
War I as the framework for a system of occasional great-power
conferences which lent some substance to the idea that the European family of
states constituted an organized entity. This concept was broadened by the Hague
Conferences of 1899 and 1907, which admitted small states as well as
great powers, and extra-European as well as European states, to participation
in collective political deliberations. Near the end of the nineteenth century,
the establishment of the Pan American Union and the initiation of a series of
inter-American conferences reinforced the Monroe
Doctrine and Simón Bolívar’s pronouncements by giving institutional
expression to the idea that the states of the Western Hemisphere constituted a
distinct subgroup within the larger multi-state system.
These nineteenth-century beginnings provided, in
large measure, the basis for the phenomenal development of international
organization since World War I. Certain distinctions which emerged during this
period between political and nonpolitical agencies, between the status of great
powers and that of small states, between regional and geographically undefined
organizations were to prove significant in the later course of international
organization. Basic patterns of institutional structure and procedure were
evolved. The trend toward broadening the conception of international
organization to include entities beyond the confines of the European state
system was initiated. Most importantly, the dual motivations of international
institution building (a) the urge to promote coordinated responses by
states to the problems of peaceful intercourse in an era of growing economic,
social, and technical interdependence, and(b)the recognition of the
necessity for moderating conflict in the political and military spheres became
operative in this period.
The conception of international relations underlying
international organization is frequently described as idealistic, in the sense
that it minimizes the element of conflict and emphasizes the potentialities of
harmony and cooperation in the relationships of states. International
organizations are characterized, by supporters and critics alike, as
arrangements for cooperation among states. Most accurately, international
organization can be said to rest upon a dualistic conception of international
relations, one which acknowledges both conflictual and cooperative
relationships as basic features of the multistate system. In principle,
international organization represents an attempt to minimize conflict and
maximize collaboration among participating states, treating conflict as an evil
to be controlled and cooperation as a good to be promoted. In these terms,
international organization both denies the inevitability of war and other
manifestations of hostility among nations and expresses a commitment to the
harmonization of international relations.
In fact, a more sophisticated analysis of
international organization reveals a much more complex approach to the
conflictual and cooperative aspects of international affairs than that
described above. Some international agencies are primarily concerned with
problems of conflict, while others emphasize the promotion of collaboration:
within the United Nations, for instance, the Security
Council is illustrative of the former type and the Economic
and Social Council of the latter. Moreover, conflicting interests of
states intrude upon programs of cooperation, making it necessary for
cooperation-oriented agencies to deal with problems of conflict, and the common
interests of states provide the means by which conflict-oriented agencies
undertake to cope with tendencies toward international disorder. Thus,
the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization is a regional agency inspired by the
East–West conflict after World War II, but it relies upon cooperation among its
members to enable it to meet the dangers posed by that conflict. Similarly, the
concept of collective security envisages cooperative action by most members of
a general international organization as the essential means for deterring or
defeating aggression.
The
concept of International Relation
International relations are an academic discipline
that focuses on the study of the interaction of the actors in international
politics, including states and non-state actors, such as the United Nations
(UN), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and Amnesty
International. One of the key features of the international system is that it
is a state of anarchy - each state in the system is sovereign and does not have
to answer to a higher authority.
International relations have to do with the study of
such things as foreign policy, international conflict and negotiation, war,
nuclear proliferation, terrorism, international trade and economics, and international
development, among other subjects. International relations' is a broad scope
that requires an interdisciplinary approach, drawing upon the fields of
economics, law, political science, sociology, game theory, and also psychology.
Sovereignty is one of the most important and popular
concepts in contemporary international relations. The concept has been
subjected to a lot of interpretations (misinterpretations) a good example is
that some of the ills in the contemporary international system both at the
domestic and interstate levels are blamed on sovereignty. Sovereignty as a
concept in both domestic and international politics dates back several
centuries. The genesis of it could be traced to the 16th century
Frenchman philosopher Jean Bodin, who in 1576 published the ground-breaking
treatise that was known as the six Books.
Bodin tried to make an input in what is systematic presentation of what
sovereignty means in both national and external politics. The two broad notions
of sovereignty were distinguished by Bodin as domestic and external sovereignty
which has been upheld as constant till date.
Domestic or Internal
Sovereignty
Sovereignty in international law is a state's supreme, independent
authority to govern its own domestic affairs and conduct foreign relations
without external interference.
Sovereignty in international politics is the principle that a state has
supreme, independent authority to govern its own territory and people without
outside interference.
In the Bible, sovereignty means God is the supreme ruler of all
creation. He has absolute power, authority, and control over the universe.
Nothing happens outside of His knowledge, and no plan or purpose of His can be
stopped.
More so, Sovereignty in political science is the supreme, absolute, and
independent authority of a state to govern itself, make laws, and maintain
order within its territory without foreign interference.
Sovereignty in international relations is the principle that a state
holds supreme, independent authority over its own territory and domestic
affairs without outside interference.
Domestic and internal
sovereignty refers to a government's supreme authority and actual control over
all people, institutions, and activities within its own geographic borders. In
political science, these two terms are often used to mean the same thing: the
power to rule at home without outside interference.
Domestic Sovereignty according to Bodin in Ojo and
Amadu (2002 p29) simply means “the absolute authority and perpetual power of a
state over its citizens and subjects unrestrained by law”. This definition was
given at the time as an insight into the domestic politics of Bodins time and
at that time state has unlimited coercive authority over its citizens and
subjects. That time was also when the Europe feudal monarchs legitimized
absolute powers only enjoyed by them. The Pope as at that time was both the
spiritual as well as temporal leader of the Holy Roman Empire. Prior to its
logical meaning as at that time Bodin’s notion of sovereignty made no room for
the right of the citizens to challenge their rulers. Quite well indeed, the
citizens were mere objects and not subjects of their leaders who were
answerable only to God, the Supreme Being for their actions. In a nutshell
Bodin’s definition gave legitimacy to atrocities of 16 century
monarchs against their subjects (Ojo and Amadu, 2002).
Domestic sovereignty according to Fawcett, it is a
mere “power and authority of a state over all persons, things and territory
within its reach”.
- De
jure sovereignty: Legal, official recognition of a government's right to
rule.
- De facto sovereignty:
Actual, practical control and power exercised over a region.
- Westphalian sovereignty:
The principle that other nations should not interfere in a state's
domestic affairs.
Core Elements of Internal Sovereignty
Internal or domestic sovereignty stands on a few main pillars:
Supreme Lawmaking: The state
creates the highest laws. Every person, company, and local group must obey
these rules. No internal group has higher authority than the state.
Monopoly on
Force: The government alone holds the right to use legal physical
force, like police or military power, to keep order.
Territorial
Control: The state manages its land and population directly.
Common Challenges of Internal or domestic sovereignty
A
government can lose or struggle with its internal sovereignty when facing
problems such as:
- Civil wars or armed rebellions.
- Strong criminal networks or
gangs that rival state power.
- Separatist movements trying to
break away.
- Weak public institutions that
fail to enforce laws.
External sovereignty
This is used synonymously with independence, which is
only a status symbol in international politics. External sovereignty in this
context is all about “independence” as a status which states used to gain
membership in international intergovernmental organizations such as Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS), European Union (EU), United Nations
(UN) etc., for instance, Gambia that are small in terms of population of less
than half a million, and the United States of America (USA) that are large in
population that is close to three hundred million people, are considered to be
equal for the purpose of external sovereignty since they are both independent
state the idea is in theory not bound by any higher constitutional arrangements
outside their own territories. At the United Nations General Assembly, the USA
and the Gambia have one equal vote each. This equality is theoretical in the
sense that when it comes in taking decision the developing countries are
silenced by the developed countries.
It is a belief that external sovereignty does not mean
that a state is free to do what it likes in the international system, or within
its territory
Furthermore,
external sovereignty is a state's complete independence and freedom from
foreign control or interference in its international relations. It means a
country answers to no higher authority in the global arena and stands as an
equal among other nations.
Essentials
attributes
- International
Recognition: Other sovereign nations must acknowledge the state as
an independent actor.
- Foreign Policy Autonomy:
The government has the exclusive right to choose allies, declare peace,
and negotiate treaties.
- Principle of Non-Interference:
Outside countries cannot lawfully meddle in the internal or external
business of the state.
- Equal Legal Status:
Large and small nations share the same fundamental rights under
international law.
External vs. Internal Sovereignty
- External Sovereignty: Focuses outward on a state's independence from outside
rule and its standing in the global community.
- Internal Sovereignty: Focuses inward on a government's supreme authority to
make and enforce laws over its own population within its borders.
Modern Challenges
- Global Organizations: Joining groups like the United Nations or the World
Trade Organization requires nations to willingly accept shared rules.
- Interdependence: Global trade and treaties mean actions in one country
create ripple effects that can limit total freedom of choice.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL
LAW
In fact, rather than referring to the international
system as a present-day world government, it is more common to refer to
international law as representing only the potential roots of a possible future
world government. The modern rise of international law can be traced back to
the Peace
of Westphalia of 1648, which ended the Thirty Years’ War in part
by recognizing the right of territorial sovereignty in interstate affairs. What
came to be known as the Westphalian order is defined by two principles: state
territoriality—the international recognition of well-defined borders—and the right
to non-intervention in domestic affairs. The Westphalian order placed the
independent nation-state at the center of the international system at the
expense of larger supranational authorities such as the Holy
Roman Empire or the Roman
Catholic Church. Nonetheless, international law constituted only a minimal
system of coexistence, and military force remained the primary mechanism for
the settlement of conflict. The early nineteenth century witnessed the
formation of the Concert
of Europe—a balance
of power arrangement with the goal of establishing security on the
continent in the wake of the Napoleonic wars. Yet it was not until the end
of World
War I (1914–1918) and the founding of the League
of Nations that the first systemic international organization was
formed with the purpose of avoiding war altogether. And it was not until the
close of World
War II (1939–1945) that the formation of the United
Nations, and the establishment of the International Military Tribunal for
the Punishment of War Criminals, made aggressive war an internationally
recognized crime.
After World
War II, international law entered a new stage represented by the ban on the
use of force and the elevation of human
rights to the status of international law through the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. Historically, the subjects of international law
had always been groups or collective actors, principally states. But with the
rise of human
rights and war
crimes legislation more and more international law came to refer
directly to the individual person, independent of particular group membership.
With this development some understand international law to be following a
trajectory that points away from the statist Westphalian model of international
relations toward a universalist, cosmopolitan model of world government.
Most international law, however, remained state- or
group-based well into the start of the twenty-first century. Many
late-twentieth century developments do, however, point toward the coexistence
of an alternative cosmopolitan model. For example, the International Criminal
Court (ICC) points toward the development of an international system of justice
in which individuals could claim to be citizens of the world subject to a
single law executed by a single world government. Thus, one might imagine a
future world government as taking form around such a notion of universal
citizenship. The ICC was founded in 1998 to prosecute perpetrators of the most
heinous crimes recognized by the entire international community,
including “genocide” and “crimes against
humanity.” However, important obstacles to its success remain: Not all
countries immediately recognized its authority, subsequently undermining its
claim to universality; most important, the United States disputed its mandate,
claimed special exemption from its jurisdiction, and pressured other
countries—especially its aid recipients—to do the same. Similarly, other trends
suggest that the decentralized structure of the international system could just
as easily develop away from the consolidation of a coherent world government.
For example, in the early years of the twenty-first century, international
regulation was increasingly the product of private-public partnerships,
resulting in a pluralization of rule-making structures rather than their
institutional concentration.
Historical
overview of International Organization (The League of Nations)
The
League of Nations was the first permanent early international Organization that
lasted for some years. The first meeting of the League of Nations was held in
1920 at Geneva in Switzerland. It was created by the Versailles and other peace
treaties ending World War I. The upbraided nationalism that had inflamed Europe
in the early 20th century was widely seen as a major cause of World War I. The
horrendous losses in the War convinced many Europeans that there must never be
another war.
A League of Nations proposed by the 28th US
president (1856 - 1924) Woodrow Wilson who served in office from 1913 to 1921
and lead America through World War 1(1914 - 1918) was seen as a way of
preventing war in the future through a system of collective security. The
League was a culmination of other political thinkers who had late the
intellectual background; men like the duke de Sully and Immanuel Kant. The
League failed in the face of Fascism (a RIGHT-WING political system in which
people’s lives were completely controlled by the state and no political
opposition is allowed to air their views on it was used in Germany and Italy in
the 1930s and 40s). Its successor was the United Nations (UN)
|
Original
Members of the League of Nations - January 10, 1920
Argentina,
Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Cuba,
Czechoslovakia, Denmark, el Salvador, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti,
Honduras, India, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Netherlands, New Zealand Nicaragua,
Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Persia, Peru Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Siam,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, South Africa, United Kingdom, Uruguay Venezuela,
Yugoslavia (40 members). |
Types of International Organizations
- Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) was created by treaties between states whereas their
Membership consists of sovereign states. Examples: United Nations,
European Union, African Union, OPEC, ECOWAS etc.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) they are Independent of governments, and their Membership
consists of individuals or organizations, some examples are: Red Cross, Amnesty
International, Greenpeace etc.
We also have Supranational Organizations that have authority above national governments such
organizations are the: European Union, Commonwealth of Nations International
Criminal Court of Justice (ICJ) etc.
Importance of International
Organizations in Global Governance
1.
They help in
Promoting Peace and Security:
by Preventing and resolving conflicts all over the world. They also are known
for Maintaining international peace and security.
2.
Fostering
International Cooperation: They are
also at encouraging collaboration on global issues thereby facilitating
international agreements and treaties among countries.
3.
Providing
Humanitarian Aid: this is by Responding
to natural disasters and humanitarian crises thereby providing assistance to
refugees and displaced persons in a place that there are conflicts. For
instance in Nigeria Bokoharam has displaced so many people making them refugees
in their own country such people are provided with humanitarian aids from the
international organizations.
4.
Promoting
Sustainable Development: one good thing about international organizations was that they are good
at addressing global challenges like
climate change and poverty by supporting economic and social development more
especially in the underdeveloped countries.
5.
Upholding
International Law: They also are at home in promoting
respect for international law and human rights thereby providing a framework
for international justice for peace to reign in the world.
Main Target and Functions of International Organizations
Keep Peace:
Stop wars and help nations talk.
Health and Aid:
Fight diseases and send food or help after disasters.
Trade and Money:
Set rules for buying and selling goods between countries.
Protect Nature:
Work together to save the environment.
Key Conflicts During the League's Era
- World War II (1939–1945): Triggered by Germany's invasion of Poland, marking the
final collapse of the League's collective security.
- Second Sino-Japanese War
(1937–1945): Began after Japan's full-scale
invasion of China, which the League failed to halt.
- Second Italo-Ethiopian War
(1935–1936): Fought when fascist Italy
invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia), rendering the League's economic sanctions
ineffective.
- Spanish Civil War (1936–1939): A major proxy conflict involving nationalist and
republican forces where the League remained powerless.
World
War II broke out
in 1939 during the existence of the League of Nations, exposing the international
organization's failure to maintain global peace. [1, 2, 3]
Key Conflicts During the League's Era
·
World War II (1939–1945): Triggered by
Germany's invasion of Poland, marking the final collapse of the League's
collective security.
·
Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945): Began after Japan's
full-scale invasion of China, which the League failed to halt.
·
Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–1936): Fought when fascist
Italy invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia), rendering the League's economic sanctions
ineffective.
·
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939): A major proxy
conflict involving nationalist and republican forces where the League remained
powerless. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
The
League of Nations failed primarily because it lacked an independent military
force and required unanimous voting, which paralyzed its
decision-making.
Because
it could not enforce its decrees, aggressive nations simply ignored the League
or withdrew entirely when faced with criticism.
Structural Flaws That Caused the Failure
- Absence of Major Powers: The United States never joined despite
President Woodrow Wilson proposing it, while the Soviet Union and Germany
were excluded for critical periods.
- No Enforcement Mechanism: The League relied on economic sanctions. It had no
army of its own to stop military invasions.
- The Unanimity Rule: Decisions in the League's Assembly and Council
required 100% agreement, allowing a single aggressive country to
veto any action against them.
- Self-Interest of Leaders: Britain and France, the primary leaders, preferred appeasement
and secret treaties over risking another massive European war.
The
Evolution: League of Nations vs. United Nations
Following
the catastrophic failure of the League, world leaders established the United
Nations (UN) in 1945. They redesigned its structure specifically to fix the
flaws of the League.
|
Feature |
League of Nations (1920–1946) |
United Nations (1945–Present) |
|
Global Membership |
Lacked the US; Germany and USSR joined late or were
expelled. |
Includes all major global powers, including the US,
Russia, and China. |
|
Military Power |
Had no peacekeeping forces or military leverage. |
Can deploy UN Peacekeeping troops supplied by member
states. |
|
Voting System |
Required a unanimous vote, meaning one nation could
halt everything. |
Uses majority or two-thirds voting; only the 5
permanent Security Council members hold veto power. |
|
Core Structure |
Divided simply into an Assembly, Council, and Secretariat. |
Built around a powerful Security Council capable of
authorizing military action. |
If you a
THE
BENEFITS COUNTRIES DERIVE FROM THEIR MEMBERSHIP OF THE UNITED NATIONS
ORGANIZATION
Why do states want to become or remain members of this
august body? What is in it for them? Listed below are some of the benefits
nations derive from their membership of the United Nations Organization and why
it is on the wish of the nations of the world.
Note, however, that the United Nations will not sit
down unconcerned when conflict, famine or any natural calamity erupts in any
part of the world because that nation does not belong to the body. They will
find a way to help to bring the situation down. For example, Palestine does not
have an official membership in the UN but there will be an intervention from
the body if any conflict erupts in that region.
One of the major reasons for the
establishment of the UN is to ensure the prevention of the eruption of conflicts.
The United Nations Charter, which was coming after the failure of the League of
Nations to prevent the Secord World War, has a central role of conflict
prevention. Though the role of the United Nations in conflict prevention does
not usually appear in the front pages of global newspapers, the organization
has been effective in preventing many violent conflicts. Various tools are
deployed in engaging local, national and international political actors to find
peace before they escalate into conflict.
The United Nations, through the
Security Council has intervened to prevent conflicts from occurring. Where
there is a threat to peace, and the Security Council gets wind of it, it first
recommends that parties settle cases by peaceful means. Member-countries
benefit from membership of the UN when mediation by the Security Council helps
to avert armed conflict in their countries.
Ø
Peace
keeping
In a situation where the Security
Council, after trying its best, is unable to prevent the conflict from occurring,
they are able to use UN Peace-keeping soldiers to restore peace and keep it
from further escalating. The UN has been in Lebanon, Bosnia, Darfur, etc to
restore and maintain peace. Member-states benefit from their membership of the
UN in times of violent conflicts where both sides of the conflict refuse to see
reason.
Member-states of the United Nations
benefit from their membership in the area of conflict resolution. This is able
to prevent unnecessary conflicts on the world stage. A very recent case is the
near conflict between Ghana and la Cote D’voire when the latter accused the
former of exploring for oil in her territorial waters. This matter was taken to
the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) for redress. Membership
of the UN therefore helps member-countries to resolve conflicts in peaceful
ways and to avoid unnecessary wars.
Ø Food aid to affected
countries
The United Nations has provided food
aid to countries experiencing food shortages. Another benefit of belonging to
the world organization is that, during food shortages or severe famine,
countries can count on the Food and Agricultural Organization and the World
Food Programmes, all of the United Nations to distribute food aid to affected
areas. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) was established by the
United Nations with the sole mandate of defeating hunger. A membership of the
United Nations will ensure that the FAO intervein before countries slip into
famine due to conflict and other economic, political or natural factors.
Ø Health benefits through
the World Health Organization (WHO)
Another way in which countries
benefit from their membership of the UN is the global fight of the
international body against diseases, epidemics and pandemics. A very recent
fight is the fight against Corona virus, which is still ravaging the world. The
World Health Organization, which is an agency within the United Nations has
taken a leading role, giving policy adviser and direction to the entire world.
Even before the advent of Covid19, the UN has been in a prolong fight against
malaria, which is devastating African countries mostly. It has also been
instrumental in the fight against ebola in the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC). In 2019, for example, the UN, in conjunction with other Non-governmental
Organizations, contained the spread of ebola in the North Kivu Province of DRC.
Another benefit of the membership of
the United Nations is the promotion and respect for human rights in member-countries.
There are universal values such as the right to life, free speech, the right to
engage in legitimate business etc which every member of the United Nations is
enjoined to adhere to. Any violations of these values by member countries is
frowned upon and some members could be sanctioned for breaches. So membership
of the UN helps to promote the value for human rights in member countries.
The United Nations Organization, does not have the
power to confer statehood on a country. It does not also have the authority to
recognize a state or a government. However, one of the ways of receiving
recognition from other members of the comity of nations, is to become a member
of the United Nations. One of the benefits of a membership of the United
Nations is, therefore, to be recognized by other nations of the world.
Countries which have experienced war, where citizens
have suffered atrocities in the hands of their leaders or other political
players, have the opportunity of getting people involved in the atrocities
tried as war criminals. This is also a benefit of a country belonging to the
UN.
Such trials are able to bring closure to those who
suffered during violent conflicts. The victims of war are able to talk about
the horrible things they saw and experienced. Countries which belong to the
United Nations ensure that those who are responsible for atrocities during
armed conflicts are made to pay for their deeds. For example, the former
Yugoslavia version of the International Criminal Tribunal brought people who
were responsible for war crimes during the Balkans conflict to justice. Also,
the former President of Liberia was tried by the Special Court for Sierra Leone
(SCSL) for his alleged support for the activities of two rebel groups in Sierra
Leone. The SCSL was established by the government of Sierra Leone and the Unted
NAtions Organization.
WEAKNESSES OF THE UNITED NATIONS
1. Tool of big power
2. Domestic Jurisdiction
3. Less representation to Asia and Africa
4. Veto Power
5. Military Alliances
6. Non-sovereign body
7. Lack of permanent Forces
8. Lack of Money
9. Against the principle of Equality
10. No representation to subordinate States
11. Defective Organization
12. Politics of Appointments
13. Lack of Impartiality
14.
Charter is too rigid.
ACHIEVEMENT
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
1. Maintenance of world Peace
2. Economic and social Progress
3. Promotion of international Cooperation
4. Disarmament
5. Use of Atomic Energy for peaceful
Purposes
6. Universal Declaration of Human Rights
7. Codification and development of
international Law
8. Freedom for dependent states
9. Rehabilitation of Refugees
10. To end Apartheid
11. Opposition to colonialism
12. Help for children
13. Development of International trade
14. Use of outer space for human welfare
15. Improvement in the condition of women
16. Efforts to solve world food problem
17. United Nations and the problem of
growing world population
18. Establishment of U.N. University
19. United nation and protection of
environment
The Commonwealth of Nations
The British Commonwealth of Nations was the result of
the 1926 Balfour Declaration which stipulated that the relationship between
Britain and her Dominions was equal in status. This stipulation was formalized
officially in Section 4 of the Statute of Westminster in 1931. It stated: 'No
Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed after the commencement of this
Act shall extend, or be deemed to extend, to a Dominion as part of the law of
that Dominion, unless it is expressly declared in that Act that that Dominion
has requested, and consented to, the enactment thereof.' In section 1,
'Dominions' were specified as: 'the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of
Australia, the Dominion of New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish
Free State and Newfoundland'. The main effect of the Statute was the
establishment of legislative equality between these dominions and the United
Kingdom.
Concerning the status of Great Britain and the
Dominions, the Balfour Declaration stipulated: 'They are autonomous communities
within the British empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one
another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a
common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British
Commonwealth of Nations.' The Balfour Declaration was one of the outcomes of
the 1926 Imperial Conference in London. Section III concerns the special
position of India: 'It will be noted that in the previous paragraphs we have
made no mention of India.
Meanwhile, however, in
the period between the Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of Westminster
of 1931, British-Indian relations worsened, culminating in the failure of
the Round
Table Conferences (1930-1932). The Indian
National Congress fought for Dominion status for India, the Simon
Commission was boycotted and Gandhi launched
a major civil disobedience movement. The strained Anglo-Indian relationship in
this period left India out of the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and without
Dominion status.
The London Declaration of 1949 ended the British
Commonwealth of Nations. In order to accommodate constitutional changes in
India, the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations declared: 'The
Governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, India, Pakistan and Ceylon, whose countries are united as members of
the British Commonwealth of Nations and owe a common allegiance to the Crown,
which is also the symbol of their free association, have considered the
impending constitutional changes in India.
'The Government of India have informed the other
Governments of the Commonwealth of the intention of the Indian people that
under the new constitution which is about to be adopted India shall become a
sovereign independent republic. The Government of India have however declared
and affirmed India's desire to continue her full membership of the Commonwealth
of Nations and her acceptance of The King as the symbol of the free association
of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth. Thus,
with the London Declaration, the British Commonwealth of Nations officially
ended and became the Commonwealth of Nations.
https://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/british-commonwealth-nations-1931
As the British Empire began its
process of decolonization and the creation of independent states from former
British colonies, there arose a need for an organization of countries formerly
part of the Empire. In 1884, Lord Roseberry, a British politician, described
the changing British Empire as a "Commonwealth of Nations."
The British Commonwealth of Nations
was founded in 1931 under the Statute of Westminster with five initial members
- the United Kingdom, Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, and the Union of South
Africa. (Ireland permanently
left the Commonwealth in 1949, Newfoundland became
part of Canada in 1949, and South Africa left in 1961 due to apartheid but
rejoined in 1994 as the Republic of South Africa)
Commonwealth of
Nations Rebrand
The Commonwealth was rebranded in
1946, the word "British" was entirely dropped and the organization
became known as simply the Commonwealth
of Nations. Australia and New Zealand adopted the Statute in 1942 and 1947,
respectively. With India's independence in 1947, the new country desired to
become a Republic and not to utilize the monarchy as their head of state. The
London Declaration of 1949 modified the requirement that members must view the
monarchy as their head of state to
require that countries recognize the monarchy as simply the leader of the
Commonwealth.
With this adjustment, additional
countries joined the Commonwealth as they gained independence from the United
Kingdom so today there are fifty-four (54) member countries. Of the fifty-four,
thirty-three (33) are republics (such as India), five (5) have their own
monarchies (such as Brunei Darussalam), and sixteen (16) are a constitutional
monarchy with the sovereign of the United Kingdom as their head of
state (such as Canada and Australia).
Although membership requires
having been a former dependency of the United Kingdom or a dependency of a
dependency, former Portuguese colony Mozambique became a member 1995 under
special circumstances due to Mozambique's willingness to support the
Commonwealth's fight against apartheid in South Africa
Policies
The Secretary-General is elected
by the Heads of Government of the membership and can serve two four-year terms.
The position of Secretary-General was established in 1965. The Commonwealth
Secretariat has its headquarters in London and is composed of 320 staff members
from the member countries. The Commonwealth maintains its own flag. The purpose
of the voluntary Commonwealth is for international cooperation and to advance
economics, social development, and human rights in member countries. Decisions
of the various Commonwealth councils are non-binding.
The Commonwealth of Nations
supports the Commonwealth Games, which is a sporting event held every four
years for member countries. A Commonwealth Day is celebrated on the second
Monday in March. Each year carries a different theme but each country can
celebrate the day as they choose. The population of the 54 member states
exceeds two billion; about 30% of the world population (India is responsible
for a majority of the Commonwealth's population).
(https://www.thoughtco.com/commonwealth-of-nations-1435408)
It is a voluntary
association of 54 independent and equal countries. Members government share
goals like development, democracy and peace. It
is home to 2.4 billion people, and includes both advanced economies and
developing countries. 32 of our members are small states, including many
island nations. The Commonwealth's roots go back to the British Empire. But today
any country can join the modern Commonwealth. The last country to join the
Commonwealth was Rwanda in 2009.
The
early Commonwealth
Over time different countries of the British Empire
gained different levels of freedom from Britain. Semi-independent countries
were called Dominions. Leaders of the Dominions attended conferences with
Britain from 1887. The 1926 Imperial Conference was attended by the leaders of
Australia, Canada, India, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, New Zealand and
South Africa. At the 1926 conference Britain and the Dominions agreed
that they were all equal members of a community within the British Empire.
They all owed allegiance to the British king or queen, but the United
Kingdom did not rule over them. This community was called the British
Commonwealth of Nations or just the Commonwealth.
Birth
of the modern Commonwealth
The Dominions and other territories of the British
Empire gradually became fully independent of the United Kingdom. India
became independent in 1947. India wanted to become a republic which didn't owe
allegiance to the British king or queen, but it also wanted to stay a member of
the Commonwealth. At a Commonwealth Prime Ministers meeting in London
in 1949, the London Declaration said that republics and other countries could
be part of the Commonwealth. The modern Commonwealth of Nations was born. King
George VI was the first Head of the Commonwealth, and Queen Elizabeth II
became Head when he died. But the British king or queen is not automatically
Head of the Commonwealth. Commonwealth member countries choose who becomes Head
of the Commonwealth.
Duties of Commonwealth Association
The Commonwealth is an association of 54
countries working towards shared goals of prosperity, democracy and peace. The Commonwealth Secretariat is the intergovernmental organisation which co-ordinates and
carries out much of the Commonwealth's work, supported by a
network of more than 80 organisations.
The Secretariat works all over the Commonwealth,
to:
i.
protect the environment and encourage sustainable use of natural resources on land and sea
ii.
boost trade and the economy
iii.
support democracy, government and the rule of law
iv.
develop society and young people, including gender
equality, education, health and sport
v.
support small states, helping them tackle the
particular challenges they face.
The Commonwealth
Fund for Technical Co-operation (CFTC)
is the main way that the Commonwealth Secretariat
provides technical help to Commonwealth countries. We make sure the help
we offer is driven by what countries tell us they need.
The
modern Commonwealth
Since 1949 independent countries from Africa, the
Americas, Asia, Europe and the Pacific have joined the Commonwealth. Membership
are based on free and equal voluntary co-operation. The last 2 countries
to join the Commonwealth - Rwanda and Mozambique - have no historical ties to
the British Empire. The
Commonwealth Secretariat was
created in 1965 as a central intergovernmental organisation to manage the
Commonwealth's work.
Commonwealth Charter
The Commonwealth Charter is a document of the
values and aspirations which unite the Commonwealth. It expresses the
commitment of member states to the development of free and democratic societies
and the promotion of peace and prosperity to improve the lives of all the
people of the Commonwealth. The Charter also acknowledges the role of civil
society in supporting the goals and values of the Commonwealth.
AFRICAN UNION (AU)
The African Union (AU) is a continental
body consisting of the 55 member states that make up the countries of the
African Continent. It was officially launched in 2002 as a successor to the
Organisation of African Unity (OAU, 1963-1999).
History:
In May 1963, 32 Heads of independent
African States met in Addis Ababa Ethiopia to sign the Charter creating
Africa’s first post-independence continental institution, The Organization of
African Unity (OAU). The OAU was the manifestation of the pan-African vision
for an Africa that was united, free and in control of its own destiny and this
was solemnized in the OAU Charter in which the
founding fathers recognized that freedom, equality, justice and dignity were
essential objectives for the achievement of the legitimate aspirations of the
African peoples and that there was a need to promote understanding among
Africa’s peoples and foster cooperation among African states in response to the
aspirations of Africans for brother-hood and solidarity, in a larger unity
transcending ethnic and national Differences. The guiding philosophy was that
of Pan-Africanism which centered on African socialism and promoted African
unity, the communal characteristic and practices of African communities, and a
drive to embrace Africa’s culture and common heritage
The main objectives of the OAU were to
rid the continent of the remaining vestiges of colonization and apartheid; to
promote unity and solidarity amongst African States; to coordinate and
intensify cooperation for development; to safeguard the sovereignty and
territorial integrity of Member States and to promote international cooperation.
Purpose of the Organization namely:
i.
To
promote the unity and solidarity of the African States;
ii.
To
coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life
for the peoples of Africa;
iii.
To
defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity and independence;
iv.
To
eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa; and
v.
To
promote international cooperation, having due regard to the Charter of the
United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Through the OAU Coordinating Committee
for the Liberation of Africa, the Continent worked and spoke as one with
undivided determination in forging an international consensus in support of the
liberation struggle and the fight against apartheid. The OAU had provided an
effective forum that enabled all Member States to adopt coordinated positions
on matters of common concern to the continent in international fora and defend
the interests of Africa effectively. On 9.9.1999, the Heads of State and
Government of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) issued the Site
Declaration calling for the establishment of an African Union, with a view, to
accelerating the process of integration in the continent to enable Africa to
play its rightful role in the global economy while addressing multifaceted social,
economic and political problems compounded as they were by certain negative
aspects of globalisation.
Purpose of the European Union
The European
Union was created to bind the nations of Europe closer together for the
economic, social, and security welfare of all. It is one of several efforts
after World War II to bind together the nations of Europe into a single entity.
Original
Member of The European Union
The original
members of the European Union were the nations of Western Europe. In the 21st
century, the EU has expanded membership to the Eastern European nations that
emerged after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Its current member nations
include Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia.
Reasons for the creation of European Union
The
overarching purpose of the European Union, in the years after World War II, was
to put an end to the devastating wars that had wracked Europe for centuries. At
the same time, it became increasingly clear that a united Europe would have far
greater economic and political power than the individual nations in the
post-world war.
THE NEW PARTNERSHIP FOR AFRICA’S
DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD)
The New Partnership for Africa’s
Development (NEPAD) is a socio-economic flagship Programme of the African Union
(AU). NEPAD’s four primary objectives are to eradicate poverty, promote
sustainable growth and development, integrate Africa in the world economy and
accelerate the empowerment of women.
NEPAD facilitates and coordinates
the development of continent-wide programmes and projects, mobilises resources
and engages the global community, Regional Economic Communities (RECs) and
member states in the implementation of these programmes and projects. The NEPAD
Agency replaced the NEPAD Secretariat in 2010 which had coordinated the
implementation of NEPAD programmes and projects since 2001.
The strategic direction of the
NEPAD Agency is divided into six themes:
- Agriculture
and Food Security
- Climate
Change and Natural Resource Management
- Regional
Integration and Infrastructure
- Human
Development
- Economic and
Corporate Governance
- Cross-Cutting
Issues – Gender, ICT, Capacity Development and Communications
The
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) was adopted by African Heads
of State and Government of the OAU in 2001 and was ratified by the African
Union (AU) in 2002 to address Africa’s development problems within a new
paradigm. NEPAD’s main objectives are to reduce poverty, put Africa on a
sustainable development path, halt the marginalization of Africa, and empower
women.
In 2008, Heads of State and Government, Ministers and
representatives of Member States adopted a political declaration to address “Africa’s development needs: state of implementation of
various commitments, challenges and the way forward” (General Assembly resolution 63/1). The declaration
reaffirmed the commitment of Member States to addressing the development needs
of Africa and requested the Secretary-General to submit to the General
Assembly, at its sixtyfourth session, a comprehensive report with
recommendations on the implementation of these commitments with a view to
formulating a mechanism to review the full and timely implementation of all
commitments related to Africa’s development.
The New
Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), an African Union strategic
framework for pan-African socio-economic development addresses critical
challenges facing the continent: poverty, development and Africa’s
marginalization internationally and provides unique opportunities for African
countries to take full control of their development agenda, to work more
closely together, and to cooperate more effectively with international
partners;
NEPAD
Manages a number of programmes and projects in six theme areas. These themes
are:
·
Agriculture and Food Security
·
Climate Change and Natural Resource
Management
·
Regional Integration and Infrastructure
·
Human Development
·
Economic and Corporate Governance
·
Cross-cutting Issues, including Gender,
Capacity Development and ICT
https://www.nepad.org/publication/nepad-brief
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) is a permanent intergovernmental organization crated at Baghdad
Conference on September 10-14, 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and
Venezuela. The five founding members were later joined by Qatar in 1961,
terminated its membership in 2019; Indonesia 1962 suspended its membership in
January 2016; Libya (1962); United Arab Emirates (1967); Algeria (1969);
Nigeria (1971); Ecuador (1973) -suspended its membership in December 1992,
reactivated it in October 2007, but decided to withdraw its membership effective
1 January 2024. Gabon
(1975) – terminated its membership in January 1995 but rejoined in July 2016;
Equatorial Guinea (2017); and Congo (2018). OPEC had its headquarters in
Geneva, Switzerland, in the first five years of its existence. This was moved
to Vienna, Austria, on September 1, 1965. OPEC’s objective is to co-ordinate
and unify petroleum policies among Member Countries, in order to secure fair
and stable prices for petroleum producers; an efficient, economic and regular
supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those
investing in the industry.
OPEC’s formation by five oil-producing developing countries in Baghdad in
September 1960 occurred at a time of transition in the international economic
and political landscape, with extensive decolonisation and the birth of many
new independent states in the developing world. The international oil market
was dominated by the “Seven Sisters” multinational companies and was largely
separate from that of the former Soviet Union (FSU) and other centrally planned
economies (CPEs). OPEC developed its collective vision, set up its objectives
and established its Secretariat, first in Geneva and then, in 1965, in Vienna.
It adopted a ‘Declaratory Statement of Petroleum Policy in Member Countries’ in
1968, which emphasised the inalienable right of all countries to exercise
permanent sovereignty over their natural resources in the interest of their
national development. Membership grew to ten by 1969.
OPEC rose to international prominence during this decade, as its Member
Countries took control of their domestic petroleum industries and began to play
a greater role in world oil markets. The decade witnessed several impactful
events that caused volatility in the global oil market to rise steeply. OPEC
broadened its mandate with the first Summit of Heads of State and Government in
Algiers in 1975, which addressed the plight of the poorer nations and called
for a new era of cooperation in international relations, in the interests of world
economic development and stability. This led to the establishment of the OPEC
Fund for International Development in 1976. Member Countries embarked on
ambitious socio-economic development schemes. Membership grew to 13 by 1975.
Demand for energy slumped and oil demand fell in the early part of 1980s,
culminating in a market crash in 1986 in response to the oil glut and a
consumer shift away from hydrocarbons. OPEC’s share of the smaller oil market
fell heavily and its total petroleum revenue dropped, causing economic
instability in many Member Countries. In the final part of the decade, the oil
market witnessed something of a recovery and OPEC’s share of newly growing
world output began to recover. This was supported by OPEC introducing a group production
adjustment divided among Member Countries and a Reference Basket for pricing,
as well as significant progress with OPEC and non-OPEC dialogue and
cooperation, seen as essential for market stability. Environmental issues
emerged on the international energy agenda.
Timely OPEC action reduced the market impact of Middle East issues in
1990–91, but excessive volatility dominated the decade. The Southeast Asian
economic downturn and mild Northern Hemisphere winter of 1998–99 saw the oil
market return to mid-1980 conditions. However, a solid recovery followed and
the oil market, which was adjusting to the post-Soviet world, became more
integrated, with a focus on globalisation, the communications revolution and
other high-tech trends. Breakthroughs in producer-consumer dialogue matched
continued advances in OPEC and non-OPEC relations. As the United
Nations-sponsored climate change negotiations gathered momentum, after the
Earth Summit of 1992, OPEC sought fairness, balance and realism in the
treatment of oil supply. One country left OPEC, while another suspended its
Membership.
The 2000s
OPEC continued with its efforts to help strengthen and stabilize the
global oil market in the early years of the decade. But a combination of market
forces, speculation and other factors transformed the situation in 2004,
pushing up volatility in a well-supplied crude market. Oil was used
increasingly as an asset class. Market volatility continued to increase in an
unprecedented manner in early 2008, before the collapse of the global financial
sector that led to economic recession. OPEC became prominent in supporting the
oil sector, as part of global efforts to address the economic crisis. OPEC’s
second and third summits in Caracas and Riyadh in 2000 and 2007 established stable
energy markets, sustainable development and the environment as three guiding
themes, and it adopted a comprehensive long-term strategy in 2005. One country
joined OPEC, another reactivated its Membership and a third suspended it.
2010s
The global economy represented the main risk to the oil market early in
the decade, as global macroeconomic uncertainties and heightened risks
surrounding the international financial system weighed on economies. Escalating
social unrest in many parts of the world affected both supply and demand
throughout the first half of the decade, although the market remained
relatively balanced. The oil market was stable between 2011 and mid-2014,
before a combination of speculation and oversupply caused it to contract. Trade
patterns then continued to shift, with global oil demand growing, particularly
in the Asian region. The world’s focus on multilateral environmental matters
began to sharpen, resulting in the Paris Agreement in 2015, which OPEC Member
Countries have all signed and 10 have ratified. OPEC continued to attend the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of
the Parties (COP) meetings to dialogue and exchange views.
Market conditions led to the emergence of the unprecedented Declaration of
Cooperation (DoC) in December 2016, with OPEC Members and 10 non-OPEC
oil-producing countries coming together to help rebalance the market, bring
down inventory levels and support oil market stability. In 2019, the Charter of
Cooperation (CoC) — a long-term platform dedicated to cooperation and the
exchange of views and information — was established.
OPEC held its 5th, 6th and 7th International Seminars in 2012, 2015 and
2018, respectively, which brought together an unprecedented number of
representatives from producing and consuming nations, national and
international oil companies, along with journalists and industry analysts.
OPEC continued to seek stability in the market, and looked to further
enhance its dialogue and cooperation with producers, consumers, international
organizations, institutions and other industry stakeholders, noting that the
need for energy dialogue has never been greater. The decade witnessed more
understanding and appreciation of the role that OPEC has played in helping
stabilize the global oil market, in the interests of both producers and
consumers.
2020s
The
new decade began with the unprecedented outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic,
which pervaded almost every aspect of daily lives. The pandemic had a
detrimental impact on both the world economy and the energy sector, pressuring
nations to take necessary, firm measures to slow the spread of the virus and
counter its effects.
The
oil market saw demand in freefall, global storage filling quickly and
large-scale volatility, as well as millions of oil industry jobs
threatened. This propelled OPEC and its partners in the DoC to intensify their
collaborative efforts to restore much-needed stability, resulting in the
largest and longest voluntary production adjustments in the oil market’s
history in April 2020. The importance of these efforts was recognized by
numerous countries and organizations, including G20 Energy Ministers, Argentina,
Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Norway, the African Petroleum Producers’
Organization, the International Energy Agency, the International Energy Forum
and many independent producers. The DoC efforts not only aided the oil industry
but had a positive impact on the global economy too.
The
focus on market stability continued in subsequent years with OPEC and DoC
partners meeting regularly to ensure the recovery remained on track. This was
not only for near-term stability, but long term too so as to help ensure a
platform for much needed industry investments.
With
much focus on future energy pathways in the first half of the decade, OPEC
underscored the importance of utilizing all energies to help deliver energy
security and energy availability, all technologies to achieve emissions
reduction, and with a focus on all peoples in accordance with their common but
differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities and their social
and economic conditions. OPEC’s approach was grounded in energy realities, relying
on impartial facts and data.
Member Countries in OPEC
OPEC is made
up of 13 member nations. The five founding members are Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela, while the other
full members include Algeria, Angola,
Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Libya, Nigeria, and the United Arab Emirates.
How the OPEC
Influences Oil Prices
Collectively,
OPEC is the largest producer and exporter of crude oil and petroleum products
in the world. Roughly 40% of the world's oil production and 60% of the world's
petroleum market come from the group's member countries and they accounted for
more than 80% of the world's proven oil reserves in 2021.14
Having said
this, it's no surprise that any moves the group makes have a big impact on
global energy prices. Oil prices can drop significantly if they decide to
supply more oil to the market. On the other hand, if OPEC member countries
decide to cut production and curb supplies, prices are highly likely to shoot
up.
Advantages and
Disadvantages of the OPEC
There are
several advantages of having a cartel like OPEC operating in the crude oil
industry.
First, it
promotes cooperation among member nations,
helping them
alleviate some degree of political hostilities.
And because the organization's main goal is to
stabilize oil production and prices,
it is able to exert some influence over
production from other nations.
Disadvantages
OPEC’s
influence on the market has been widely criticized.
Because its member countries hold the vast
majority of crude oil reserves,
The
organization has considerable power in these markets.
As a cartel,
OPEC members have a strong incentive to keep oil prices as high as possible
while maintaining their shares of the global market.
Promotes
cooperation among member nations
Exerts
influence over production from other nations
Has
considerable power
incentivized
to keep oil prices high to maintain global market share
OPEC Challenges and
Responses
Oil prices
and OPEC's role in the international petroleum market are subject to a number
of different factors. The advent of new technology, especially fracking in the United States, has had a major effect on worldwide oil
prices and has lessened OPEC’s influence on the markets. As a result, worldwide oil production increased and prices dropped significantly, leaving OPEC
in a delicate position.
OPEC decided
to maintain high production levels and consequently low prices as of mid-2016,
in an attempt to push higher-cost producers out of the market and regain market share. However, starting in January 2019, OPEC reduced
output by 1.2 million barrels a day for six months due to a concern that an
economic slowdown would create a supply glut, extending the agreement for an
additional nine months in July 2019.
Demand for oil dropped during the global crisis, which began in 2020. Producers had an
overabundance in supply with no place to store it, as the world experienced
lockdowns cutting down demand. This, along with a price war between Russia and
Saudi Arabia, led to a drop in oil prices. As a result, the organization
decided to cut production by 9.7 million barrels per day between May and July
2020. Oil prices continued to experience volatility, leading OPEC to adjust
production levels to 7.2 million barrels per day as of January 2021.
Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries. "The 12th OPEC and Non-OPEC Ministerial Meeting
Concludes."
OPEC faces
considerable challenges from innovation and new, green technology. High oil
prices are causing some oil-importing countries to look to unconventional—and
cleaner—sources of energy. These alternatives, such as shale production as an
alternative energy source, and hybrid and electric cars that reduce the
dependence on petroleum products, continue to put pressure on the organization.
OPEC is a
group that comprises the 13 member countries of OPEC and other
oil-producing countries. These countries include: Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Brunei,
Equatorial Guinea, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mexico, Malaysia, South Sudan, Sudan,
and Oman. This group was established in 2016 at a time when the economy
was seeing significantly low oil prices. The purpose was to help bring
stability to the global market. Together, OPEC nations boast 90% of the world's
oil reserves.
The Main Goals of OPEC
OPEC's main
goal is to maintain oil prices at a profitable level for its members while
keeping the market as free as possible from restrictions. The organization
ensures its members receive a steady stream of income from an uninterrupted
supply of oil.
U.S. not Part of OPEC and Countries that
Left
The United
States is not part of OPEC. This means that the country has control over its own
production and supply without any interference from the organization. Countries
that left OPEC include Ecuador, which withdrew from the organization in 2020,
Qatar, which terminated its membership in 2019, and Indonesia, which suspended
its membership in 2016.
ECOWAS
The economic Community of
West African States was established by the Treaty of Lagos signed by fifteen
West African Heads of State and Government in May 28 1975. The treaty of Lagos
was initially limited to economic cooperation but emerging political events led
to its revision and expansion of scope of cooperation in 1993. Cabo Verde joined
in 1976 and Mauritania decided to withdraw in 2000 to join the Arab Maghreb
Union. The vision of ECOWAS is to its revision and expansion of scope of
cooperation and integration, leading to the establishment of an Economic Union
in West Africa in order to raise the living standards of its peoples, to
maintain and enhance economic stability, foster relations among member States
as well as contribute to the progress and development of the African Continent.
The
Revised Treaty of ECOWAS states and the objectives are as follow:
§ the
harmonization and co-ordination of national policies and the promotion of
integration programmes, projects and activities, particularly in food,
agriculture and natural resources, industry, transport and communications, energy,
trade, money and finance, taxation, economic reform policies, human resources,
education, information, culture, science, technology, services, health,
tourism, legal matters;
§ the
harmonization and co-ordination of policies for the protection of the
environment;
§ the
promotion of the establishment of joint production enterprises;
§ the
establishment of a common market;
§ the
establishment of an economic union through the adoption of common policies in
the economic, financial, social and cultural sectors, and the creation of
monetary union.
§ The
promotion of joint ventures by private sector enterprises and other economic
operators, in particular through the adoption of a regional agreement on cross
border investments;
§ The
adoption of measures for the integration of the private sectors, particularly
the creation of an enabling environment to promote small and medium scale
enterprises;
§ The
establishment of an enabling legal environment;
§ The
harmonization of national investment codes leading to the adoption of a single
community investment code;
§ The
harmonization of standards and measures;
§ The
promotion of balanced development of the region, paying attention to the
special problems of each member state particularly those of landlocked and
small island member States;
§ The
encouragement and strengthening of relations and the promotion of the flow of
information particularly among rural populations, women and youth organizations
and socio-professional organizations such as associations of the media, business
men and women, workers, and trade unions;
§ The
adoption of a community population policy which takes into account the need for
a balance between demographic factors and socio-economic development.
§ Any
other activity that member states may decide to undertake jointly with a view
to attaining community objectives.
The
organizational structure of ECOWAS consists of the following institutions and
specialized agencies:
Institutions:
§ The
Authority of Heads of State and Government;
§ The
Council of Ministers;
§ The
Community Parliament;
§ The
Economic and Social Council;
§ The
Community of Court of Justice;
§ The
ECOWAS Commission;
§ The
ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID);
§ The
West African Health Organization
§ The
inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering and Terrorism
Financing in West Africa (GIABA).
Specialized Agencies:
§ West
African Monetary Agency (WAMA)
§ Regional
Agency for Agriculture and Food (RAAF)
§ ECOWAS
Regional Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERERA)
§ ECOWAS
Centre for Renewable Energy and Efficiency (ECREEE)
§ The
West African Power Pool (WAPP)
ECOWAS BROWN CARD
§ ECOWAS Gender Development Centre
(EGDC)
§ ECOWAS Youth and Sports Development
Centre (EYSDC)
§ West African Monetary Institute
(WAMI)
§ ECOWAS infrastructure Projects
Preparation and Development Unit (PPDU)
§ The member States of ECOWAS are:
Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Cote d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau,
Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. https://www.uneca.org/oria/pages/ecowas-economic-community-west-african-states
PROBLEMS THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST
AFRICAN STATES
Language barrier
There are three languages used for communication
within the ECOWAS bloc - English, French and Portuguese. For easy communication
among members there is the need for individuals in the region to be able to
speak these languages but this is proving to be difficult. This has
necessitated the use of interpreters to make people understand each other at
summits of the Community.
Widespread Poverty
Many of the member states of ECOWAS are
among the poorest of the poor nations in the world. Many of their citizens earn
less than a dollar a day. This, in a certain sense is preventing real economic
integration of the sub-region while many continue to live in squalor and
deprivation.
Human Rights Abuses
Another problem of the ECOWAS group is
the penchant of the member states to abuse the human rights of their citizens.
The human rights records of some member states are nothing to write home about.
Champions of human rights abuse have cited member states on many occasions over
their human rights abuse. Togo was ever cited; Nigeria under Sanni Abacha has
ever been cited. This is a problem for ECOWAS.
Financial
Problems
The
aims and objectives of the ECOWAS can only be achieved when the financial base
of the community is solid. However, some member states are not able to honour
their financial obligations to the community. This is one problem that has
bedeviled the community over the years, especially when it comes to the running
of the affairs of the community.
Strong
External Influence
Many of the member states of ECOWAS were former colonies of
some former colonial powers. Countries such as Britain, France and Portugal
ever had a colony or two that now belong to the ECOWAS group. These member
states are still controlled, to a certain extent, by their former colonial
masters. The influence of these colonial masters, in some cases, is so strong
that, they are able to determine the direction of their votes at summit
meetings on issues that are not in the interest of the former masters.
Single
currency
One
of the aims of the community is to establish a monetary union for the entire
region. This was aimed at culminating into a single currency for ECOWAS member
states. However, the member states have not been able to meet the convergence
criteria, all at the same time for the single currency to be issued. This has
made the attainment of that goal a mirage, though efforts continue to be made
towards its achievement.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE ECONOMIC
COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES
Promotion of Trade
One of the achievements of ECOWAS is that
it has promoted intra-West African trade among member countries. This has
contributed to economic growth in the sub-region.
Roads Projects
Another achievement of ECOWAS is the
improvement of the road network in the sub-region. One major road project the
ECOWAS can be lauded for is the Abidjan-Lagos High Way starting from Elubo
through Aflao to Lagos. It can also be congratulated for the Lagos-Nouakchott
High way project.
The elimination of Francophone-Anglophone divides
The ECOWAS has afforded both the
Anglophone and the Francophone countries within the sub-region an official
platform to discuss issues of the sub-region. This has helped to tone down the
suspicion and lack of trust between the English and French speaking countries
in West Africa.
Communication
Another achievement of ECOWAS is
achievement of a direct telephone communication among member states of the
community. Hitherto, direct communication among the various states was absent.
Telephone connections were routed through Europe before connecting to another
West African country. All these have been largely eliminated.
Free Movement of Persons
One of the aims of ECOWAS was to ensure
the free movement of persons, goods and services, unhindered within the
sub-region. This has been largely successful. A citizen of a member country
with valid documents could reside in another member state for a maximum of
ninety days without a visa.
Peace and Security
ECOWAS has largely achieved peace and
security in the West African sub-region. The establishment of the ECOWAS
Monitoring Group has helped to deploy troops to ensure peace in war ravaged
areas of the sub-region.
ECOWAS Summits
The ECOWAS has regularly organized
summits which were attended by Heads of member states. At these summits, the
problems of the sub-region were tabled for discussions and solutions
recommended.
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